Articles | Volume 22, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-3079-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-3079-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
07 Oct 2026
Research article |
| 07 Oct 2026
| 07 Oct 2026
Impact of grid resolution on the abyssal ocean representation in numerical models
Daniel M. C. Santos
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
Mathias Van Caspel
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Ralph Timmermann
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Olga T. Sato
Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
Related authors
No articles found.
Ronja Reese, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Clara Burgard, Erwin Lambert, Yoshihiro Nakayama, Paul R. Holland, Kaitlin A. Naughten, Ralph Timmermann, Pierre Dutrieux, Shenjie Zhou, Golsa Talebigheshlaghi, and Yanmei Tian
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5337, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5337, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
Short summary
Short summary
An important factor in projections of the Antarctic contribution to future sea level rise is the Southern Ocean. The Ice Sheet Model Intercomparison Project for CMIP7 aims to provide ice sheet projections, and here we introduce the protocol for handling the ocean in Antarctica. It describes how ocean changes from global atmosphere-ocean models can be used in Antarctic simulations and how ocean conditions can be translated into melt rates, taking into account oceanographic knowledge.
Claire K. Yung, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Alistair Adcroft, Christopher Y. S. Bull, Jan De Rydt, Michael S. Dinniman, Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Daniel Goldberg, David E. Gwyther, Robert Hallberg, Matthew Harrison, Tore Hattermann, David M. Holland, Denise Holland, Paul R. Holland, James R. Jordan, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Kazuya Kusahara, Gustavo Marques, Pierre Mathiot, Dimitris Menemenlis, Adele K. Morrison, Yoshihiro Nakayama, Olga Sergienko, Robin S. Smith, Alon Stern, Ralph Timmermann, and Qin Zhou
The Cryosphere, 20, 2053–2088, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2053-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2053-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
The second Ice Shelf-Ocean Model Intercomparison Project, ISOMIP+, compares 12 ice shelf-ocean models with a common, idealised, static configuration, aiming to assess inter-model variability. Models show similar basal melt rate patterns, ocean profiles and circulation but differ in ice-ocean boundary layer properties. Ice-ocean boundary layer representation is a key area for future work, as are realistic-domain ice sheet-ocean model intercomparisons.
Benjamin K. Galton-Fenzi, Richard Porter-Smith, Sue Cook, Eva Cougnon, David E. Gwyther, Wilma G. C. Huneke, Madelaine G. Rosevear, Xylar Asay-Davis, Fabio Boeira Dias, Michael S. Dinniman, David Holland, Kazuya Kusahara, Kaitlin A. Naughten, Keith W. Nicholls, Charles Pelletier, Ole Richter, Hélène Seroussi, and Ralph Timmermann
The Cryosphere, 19, 6507–6525, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6507-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6507-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Quantifying melt and freeze beneath Antarctica’s floating ice shelves is vital to understanding present-day ice-sheet behavior and its potential to contribute to future sea-level rise. We compare 10 ice-shelf/ocean computer simulations with satellite data, providing the first multi-model estimate of melting and refreezing driven by the ocean. This new estimate offers a valuable tool for assessing ice-shelf roles in current and future ice-sheet changes, informing coastal adaptation strategies.
Vanessa Teske, Ralph Timmermann, Cara Nissen, Rolf Zentek, Tido Semmler, and Günther Heinemann
Ocean Sci., 21, 1205–1221, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1205-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1205-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the structural changes the Antarctic Slope Front in the southern Weddell Sea experiences in a warming climate by conducting two ocean simulations driven by atmospheric data of different horizontal resolutions. Cross-slope currents associated with a regime shift from a cold to a warm Filchner Trough on the continental shelf temporarily disturb the structure of the slope front and reduce its depth, but the primary reason for a regime shift is the cross-slope density gradient.
Ole Richter, Ralph Timmermann, G. Hilmar Gudmundsson, and Jan De Rydt
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 2945–2960, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2945-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2945-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The new coupled ice sheet–ocean model addresses challenges related to horizontal resolution through advanced mesh flexibility, enabled by the use of unstructured grids. We describe the new model, verify its functioning in an idealised setting and demonstrate its advantages in a global-ocean–Antarctic ice sheet domain. The results of this study comprise an important step towards improving predictions of the Antarctic contribution to sea level rise over centennial timescales.
Torsten Kanzow, Angelika Humbert, Thomas Mölg, Mirko Scheinert, Matthias Braun, Hans Burchard, Francesca Doglioni, Philipp Hochreuther, Martin Horwath, Oliver Huhn, Maria Kappelsberger, Jürgen Kusche, Erik Loebel, Katrina Lutz, Ben Marzeion, Rebecca McPherson, Mahdi Mohammadi-Aragh, Marco Möller, Carolyne Pickler, Markus Reinert, Monika Rhein, Martin Rückamp, Janin Schaffer, Muhammad Shafeeque, Sophie Stolzenberger, Ralph Timmermann, Jenny Turton, Claudia Wekerle, and Ole Zeising
The Cryosphere, 19, 1789–1824, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1789-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-1789-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Greenland Ice Sheet represents the second-largest contributor to global sea-level rise. We quantify atmosphere, ice and ocean processes related to the mass balance of glaciers in northeast Greenland, focusing on Greenland’s largest floating ice tongue, the 79° N Glacier. We find that together, the different in situ and remote sensing observations and model simulations reveal a consistent picture of a coupled atmosphere–ice sheet–ocean system that has entered a phase of major change.
Jan De Rydt, Nicolas C. Jourdain, Yoshihiro Nakayama, Mathias van Caspel, Ralph Timmermann, Pierre Mathiot, Xylar S. Asay-Davis, Hélène Seroussi, Pierre Dutrieux, Ben Galton-Fenzi, David Holland, and Ronja Reese
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7105–7139, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7105-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7105-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Global climate models do not reliably simulate sea-level change due to ice-sheet–ocean interactions. We propose a community modelling effort to conduct a series of well-defined experiments to compare models with observations and study how models respond to a range of perturbations in climate and ice-sheet geometry. The second Marine Ice Sheet–Ocean Model Intercomparison Project will continue to lay the groundwork for including ice-sheet–ocean interactions in global-scale IPCC-class models.
Ole Zeising, Niklas Neckel, Nils Dörr, Veit Helm, Daniel Steinhage, Ralph Timmermann, and Angelika Humbert
The Cryosphere, 18, 1333–1357, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1333-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1333-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The 79° North Glacier in Greenland has experienced significant changes over the last decades. Due to extreme melt rates, the ice has thinned significantly in the vicinity of the grounding line, where a large subglacial channel has formed since 2010. We attribute these changes to warm ocean currents and increased subglacial discharge from surface melt. However, basal melting has decreased since 2018, indicating colder water inflow into the cavity below the glacier.
Cara Nissen, Ralph Timmermann, Mathias van Caspel, and Claudia Wekerle
Ocean Sci., 20, 85–101, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-85-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-85-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The southeastern Weddell Sea is important for global ocean circulation due to the cross-shelf-break exchange of Dense Shelf Water and Warm Deep Water, but their exact circulation pathways remain elusive. Using Lagrangian model experiments in an eddy-permitting ocean model, we show how present circulation pathways and transit times of these water masses on the continental shelf are altered by 21st-century climate change, which has implications for local ice-shelf basal melt rates and ecosystems.
Lukrecia Stulic, Ralph Timmermann, Stephan Paul, Rolf Zentek, Günther Heinemann, and Torsten Kanzow
Ocean Sci., 19, 1791–1808, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1791-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1791-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In the southern Weddell Sea, the strong sea ice growth in coastal polynyas drives formation of dense shelf water. By using a sea ice–ice shelf–ocean model with representation of the changing icescape based on satellite data, we find that polynya sea ice growth depends on both the regional atmospheric forcing and the icescape. Not just strength but also location of the sea ice growth in polynyas affects properties of the dense shelf water and the basal melting of the Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf.
Verena Haid, Ralph Timmermann, Özgür Gürses, and Hartmut H. Hellmer
Ocean Sci., 19, 1529–1544, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1529-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1529-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Recently, it was found that cold-to-warm changes in Antarctic shelf sea areas are possible and lead to higher ice shelf melt rates. In modelling experiments, we found that if the highest density in front of the ice shelf becomes lower than the density of the warmer water off-shelf at the deepest access to the shelf, the off-shelf water will flow onto the shelf. Our results also indicate that this change will offer some, although not much, resistance to reversal and constitutes a tipping point.
Cited articles
Abrahamsen, E. P., Meijers, A. J. S., Polzin, K. L., Naveira Garabato, A. C., King, B. A., Firing, Y. L., Sallée, J.-B., Sheen, K. L., Gordon, A. L., Huber, B. A., and Meredith, M. P.: Stabilization of dense Antarctic water supply to the Atlantic Ocean overturning circulation, Nat. Clim. Change, 9, 742–746, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0561-2, 2019. a
Amante, C. and Eakins, B. W.: ETOPO1 arc-minute global relief model: procedures, data sources and analysis, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, https://doi.org/10.7289/V5C8276M, 2009. a
Arhan, M., Heywood, K. J., and King, B. A.: The deep waters from the Southern Ocean at the entry to the Argentine Basin, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 46, 475–499, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00110-6, 1999. a
Bailey, S. T., Jones, C. S., Abernathey, R. P., Gordon, A. L., and Yuan, X.: Water mass transformation variability in the Weddell Sea in ocean reanalyses, Ocean Sci., 19, 381–402, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-381-2023, 2023. a
Becker, J. J., Sandwell, D. T., Smith, W. H. F., Braud, J., Binder, B., Depner, J. L., Fabre, D., Factor, J., Ingalls, S., Kim, S.-H., Ladner, R., Marks, K., Nelson, S., Pharaoh, A., Sharman, G., Trimmer, R., Von Rosenberg, J., Wallace, G., and Weatherall, P.: Global bathymetry and elevation data at 30 arc seconds resolution: SRTM30_PLUS, Mar. Geod., 32, 355–371, https://doi.org/10.1080/01490410903297766, 2009. a
Boyer, T. P., Antonov, J. I., Baranova, O. K., Coleman, C., Garcia, H. E., Grodsky, A., Johnson, D. R., Locarnini, R. A., Mishonov, A. V., OB́rien, T. D., Paver, C. R., Reagan, J. R., Seidov, D., Smolyar, I. V., and Zweng, M. M.: World Ocean Database 2013, NOAA Atlas NESDIS 72, Silver Spring, MD, https://doi.org/10.7289/V5NZ85MT, 2013. a
Campos, E. J. D., van Caspel, M. C., Zenk, W., Morozov, E. G., Frey, D. I., Piola, A. R., Meinen, C. S., Sato, O. T., Perez, R. C., and Dong, S.: Warming trend in Antarctic Bottom Water in the Vema Channel in the South Atlantic, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2021GL094709, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL094709, 2021. a, b
Carmack, E. C.: Water characteristics of the Southern Ocean south of the Polar Front, in: A Voyage of Discovery, edited by: Angel, M., 15–41, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977. a
Carton, J. A., Chepurin, G. A., and Chen, L.: SODA3: A new ocean climate reanalysis, J. Climate, 31, 6967–6983, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0149.1, 2018. a, b
Chassignet, E. P., Yeager, S. G., Fox-Kemper, B., Bozec, A., Castruccio, F., Danabasoglu, G., Horvat, C., Kim, W. M., Koldunov, N., Li, Y., Lin, P., Liu, H., Sein, D. V., Sidorenko, D., Wang, Q., and Xu, X.: Impact of horizontal resolution on global ocean–sea ice model simulations based on the experimental protocols of the Ocean Model Intercomparison Project phase 2 (OMIP-2), Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 4595–4637, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4595-2020, 2020. a
Chidichimo, M. P., Piola, A. R., Meinen, C. S., Perez, R. C., Campos, E. J. D., Dong, S., Lumpkin, R., and Garzoli, S. L.: Brazil Current Volume Transport Variability during 2009–2015 from a long-term moored array at 34.5° S, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 126, e2020JC017146, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JC017146, 2021. a
Chidichimo, M. P., Perez, R. C., Speich, S., Kersalé, M., Sprintall, J., Dong, S., Lamont, T., Sato, O. T., Chereskin, T. K., Hummels, R., and Schmid, C.: Energetic overturning flows, dynamic interocean exchanges, and ocean warming observed in the South Atlantic, Commun. Earth Environ., 4, 10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00644-x, 2023. a
Coles, V. J., McCartney, M. S., Olson, D. B., and Smethie Jr., W. M.: Changes in Antarctic Bottom Water properties in the western South Atlantic in the late 1980s, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 101, 8957–8970, https://doi.org/10.1029/95JC03721, 1996. a
Cunningham, S. A., Kanzow, T., Rayner, D., Baringer, M. O., Johns, W. E., Marotzke, J., Longworth, H. R., Grant, E. M., Hirschi, J. J.-M., Beal, L. M., Meinen, C. S., and Bryden, H. L.: Temporal variability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26.5° N, Science, 317, 935–938, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1141304, 2007. a
Danilov, S., Wang, Q., Timmermann, R., Iakovlev, N., Sidorenko, D., Kimmritz, M., Jung, T., and Schröter, J.: Finite-Element Sea Ice Model (FESIM), version 2, Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 1747–1761, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-1747-2015, 2015. a
Danilov, S., Sidorenko, D., Wang, Q., and Jung, T.: The Finite-volumE Sea ice–Ocean Model (FESOM2), Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 765–789, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-765-2017, 2017. a
Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M. A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A. C. M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A. J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S. B., Hersbach, H., Hólm, E. V., Isaksen, L., Källberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A. P., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de Rosnay, P., Tavolato, C., Thépaut, J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 553–597, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828, 2011. a, b, c
Delworth, T. L., Rosati, A., Anderson, W. G., Adcroft, A. J., Balaji, V., Benson, R., Dixon, K. W., Griffies, S. M., Lee, H.-C., Pacanowski, R. C., Vecchi, G. A., Wittenberg, A. T., Zeng, F., and Zhang, R.: Simulated climate and climate change in the GFDL CM2.5 high-resolution coupled climate model, J. Climate, 25, 2755–2781, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00316.1, 2012. a
Donea, J. and Huerta, A.: Finite element methods for flow problems, John Wiley & Sons, https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013826, 2003. a
ECCO Consortium, Fukumori, I., Wang, O., Fenty, I., Forget, G., Heimbach, P., and Ponte, R. M.: ECCO Central Estimate (Version 4 Release 4), https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset/ECCO_L4_TEMP_SALINITY_LLC0090GRID_MONTHLY_V4R4 (last access: 17 July 2025), 2025. a
Fahrbach, E., Rohardt, G., Scheele, N., Schröder, M., Strass, V., and Wisotzki, A.: Formation and discharge of deep and bottom water in the northwestern Weddell Sea, J. Mar. Res., 53, 515–538, https://doi.org/10.1357/0022240953213089, 1995. a
Fahrbach, E., Hoppema, M., Rohardt, G., Boebel, O., Klatt, O., and Wisotzki, A.: Warming of deep and abyssal water masses along the Greenwich meridian on decadal time scales: The Weddell gyre as a heat buffer, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 58, 2509–2523, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2011.06.007, 2011. a
Forget, G., Campin, J.-M., Heimbach, P., Hill, C. N., Ponte, R. M., and Wunsch, C.: ECCO version 4: an integrated framework for non-linear inverse modeling and global ocean state estimation, Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 3071–3104, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-3071-2015, 2015. a, b
Frey, D. I., Morozov, E. G., Fomin, V. V., Diansky, N. A., and Tarakanov, R. Y.: Regional modeling of Antarctic Bottom Water flows in the key passages of the Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 8414–8428, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015315, 2019. a
Fukumori, I., Wang, O., Fenty, I., Forget, G., Heimbach, P., and Ponte, R. M.: ECCO version 4 release 3, Tech. rep., Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL/NASA), http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/110380 (last access: February 2025), 2017. a
Gent, P. R. and McWilliams, J. C.: Isopycnal mixing in ocean circulation models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20, 150–155, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020<0150:IMIOCM>2.0.CO;2, 1990. a
Heuzé, C.: Antarctic Bottom Water and North Atlantic Deep Water in CMIP6 models, Ocean Sci., 17, 59–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-59-2021, 2021. a
Hogg, N., Biscaye, P., Gardner, W., and Schmitz Jr., W. J.: On the transport and modification of Antarctic Bottom Water in the Vema Channel, J. Mar. Res., 40, 231–263, 1982. a
IOC, SCOR, and IAPSO: The International Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater – 2010: Calculation and Use of Thermodynamic Properties, no. 56 in Manuals and Guides, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, 2010. a
Johnson, G. C.: Antarctic Bottom Water Warming and Circulation Slowdown in the Argentine Basin From Analyses of Deep Argo and Historical Shipboard Temperature Data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2022GL100526, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL100526, 2022. a
Karstensen, J., Speich, S., Asdar, S., Berbel, G. B. B., Branlard, L., Carvalho, A., Chidichimo, M. P., Cotrim da Cunha, L., da Silva Calixto, A., Edsgren, C., Guerrero, R., Hummels, R., Jones, S., Kersale, M., Lebehot, A., Marshall, T., Mohale, N., Rogge, A., Sato, O. T., Schrandt, J., Stöven, T., and Sutti Otera, B.: Seamount Observatory and SAMOC Overturning, Cruise No. MSM60, January 04–February 01, 2017, Cape Town South Africa – Montevideo Uruguay, Gutachterpanel Forschungsschiffe, https://doi.org/10.2312/cr_msm60, 2019. a
Kobayashi, S., Ota, Y., Harada, Y., Ebita, A., Moriya, M., Onoda, H., Onogi, K., Kamahori, H., Kobayashi, C., Endo, H., Miyaoka, K., and Takahashi, K.: The JRA-55 reanalysis: General specifications and basic characteristics, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 93, 5–48, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2015-001, 2015. a
Komori, N., Takahashi, K., Komine, K., Motoi, T., Zhang, X., and Sagawa, G.: Description of sea-ice component of coupled ocean–sea-ice model for the Earth Simulator (OIFES), J. Earth Simulator, 4, 31–45, https://doi.org/10.32131/jes.4.31, 2005. a
Large, W. G., McWilliams, J. C., and Doney, S. C.: Oceanic vertical mixing: A review and a model with a nonlocal boundary layer parameterization, Rev. Geophys., 32, 363–403, https://doi.org/10.1029/94RG01872, 1994. a
Lellouche, J.-M., Greiner, E., Le Galloudec, O., Garric, G., Regnier, C., Drevillon, M., Benkiran, M., Testut, C.-E., Bourdalle-Badie, R., Gasparin, F., Hernandez, O., Levier, B., Drillet, Y., Remy, E., and Le Traon, P.-Y.: Recent updates to the Copernicus Marine Service global ocean monitoring and forecasting real-time
Lellouche, J.-M., Greiner, E., Bourdallé-Badie, R., Garric, G., Melet, A., Drévillon, M., Bricaud, C., Hamon, M., Le Galloudec, O., Regnier, C., Candela, T., Testut, C.-E., Gasparin, F., Ruggiero, G., Benkiran, M., Drillet, Y., and Le Traon, P.-Y.: The Copernicus global
Locarnini, R. A., Mishonov, A. V., Baranova, O. K., Boyer, T. P., Zweng, M. M., Garcia, H. E., Reagan, J. R., Seidov, D., Weathers, K. W., Paver, C. R., and Smolyar, I. V.: World ocean atlas 2018, volume 1: Temperature, NOAA, https://doi.org/10.25923/e5rn-9711, 2018. a
Madec, G.: NEMO ocean engine, Tech. Rep. 27, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL), France, 300 pp., Zenodo, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3248739, 2008. a
Marshall, J., Hill, C., Perelman, L., and Adcroft, A.: Hydrostatic, quasi-hydrostatic, and nonhydrostatic ocean modeling, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 102, 5733–5752, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JC02776, 1997. a
Meinen, C. S., Piola, A. R., Perez, R. C., and Garzoli, S. L.: Deep Western Boundary Current transport variability in the South Atlantic: preliminary results from a pilot array at 34.5° S, Ocean Sci., 8, 1041–1054, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-8-1041-2012, 2012. a
Morozov, E. G., Frey, D. I., and Campos, E.: Flow of Antarctic bottom water in the Vema Channel. A review, Fundamentalnaya i Prikladnaya Gidrofizika, 11, 94–102, https://doi.org/10.7868/S2073667318020089, 2018. a, b, c
Noh, Y. and Jin Kim, H.: Simulations of temperature and turbulence structure of the oceanic boundary layer with the improved near-surface process, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 104, 15621–15634, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JC900068, 1999. a
Noro, M., Dotto, T. S., Tonelli, M., and Wainer, I.: Variability of the Weddell Sea deep waters in GLORYS12v1 reanalysis, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 104599, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2025.104599, 2025. a
Orsi, A. H., Johnson, G. C., and Bullister, J. L.: Circulation, mixing, and production of Antarctic Bottom Water, Prog. Oceanogr., 43, 55–109, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6611(99)00004-X, 1999. a
Pacanowski, R. C. and Griffies, S. M.: The MOM3 manual. GFDL Ocean Group Tech. Rep. 4, NOAA, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ, 680 pp., 1999. a
Redi, M. H.: Oceanic isopycnal mixing by coordinate rotation, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 12, 1154–1158, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1982)012<1154:OIMBCR>2.0.CO;2, 1982. a
Santos, D. M. C., Biló, T. C., Napolitano, D. C., Perez, R. C., Polito, P. S., Gula, J., Dong, S., Campos, E. J. D., and Sato, O. T.: Antarctic bottom water contraction drives abyssal ocean warming along SAMBA-West line (34.5° S) in the Argentine Basin, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 104627, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2025.104627, 2026a. a, b, c, d
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Vema section – FESOM outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19595306, 2026b. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: TS diagram – FESOM outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19597204, 2026c. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: CTD locations – FESOM outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19597367, 2026d. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Mooring locations – FESOM outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19597574, 2026e. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Abyssal properties – FESOM R outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19598232, 2026f. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Abyssal properties – FESOM V outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19597878, 2026g. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Abyssal properties – FESOM H outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19597860, 2026h. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Abyssal properties – FESOM VH outputs, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19597737, 2026i. a
Santos, D. M. C., van Caspel, M., Timmermann, R., and Sato, O.: Temporal evolution of abyssal potential density: a multi-model and multi-resolution assessment, Zenodo [video recording], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19699061, 2026j. a, b, c, d
Sasaki, H., Kida, S., Furue, R., Aiki, H., Komori, N., Masumoto, Y., Miyama, T., Nonaka, M., Sasai, Y., and Taguchi, B.: A global eddying hindcast ocean simulation with OFES2, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 3319–3336, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-3319-2020, 2020. a, b
Schaffer, J., Timmermann, R., Arndt, J. E., Kristensen, S. S., Mayer, C., Morlighem, M., and Steinhage, D.: A global, high-resolution data set of ice sheet topography, cavity geometry, and ocean bathymetry, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 8, 543–557, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-8-543-2016, 2016. a
Schott, F. A., Dengler, M., Zantopp, R., Stramma, L., Fischer, J., and Brandt, P.: The shallow and deep western boundary circulation of the South Atlantic at 5–11° S, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 35, 2031–2053, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO2813.1, 2005. a
Solodoch, A., Stewart, A., Hogg, A. M., Morrison, A., Kiss, A., Thompson, A., Purkey, S., and Cimoli, L.: How does antarctic bottom water cross the southern ocean?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2021GL097211, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL097211, 2022. a
Steele, M., Morley, R., and Ermold, W.: PHC: A global ocean hydrography with a high-quality Arctic Ocean, J. Climate, 14, 2079–2087, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<2079:PAGOHW>2.0.CO;2, 2001. a
Stewart, K., Hogg, A. M., Griffies, S., Heerdegen, A., Ward, M., Spence, P., and England, M. H.: Vertical resolution of baroclinic modes in global ocean models, Ocean Model., 113, 50–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2017.03.012, 2017. a, b
Thacker, W. C. and Long, R. B.: Fitting dynamics to data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 93, 1227–1240, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC093iC02p01227, 1988. a
Tsujino, H., Urakawa, S., Nakano, H., Small, R. J., Kim, W. M., Yeager, S. G., Danabasoglu, G., Suzuki, T., Bamber, J. L., Bentsen, M., Böning, C. W., Bozec, A., Chassignet, E. P., Curchitser, E., Boeira Dias, F., Durack, P. J., Griffies, S. M., Harada, Y., Ilicak, M., Josey, S. A., Kobayashi, C., Kobayashi, S., Komuro, Y., Large, W. G., Le Sommer, J., Marsland, S. J., Masina, S., Scheinert, M., Tomita, H., Valdivieso, M., and Yamazaki, D.: JRA-55 based surface dataset for driving ocean–sea-ice models (JRA55-do), Ocean Model., 130, 79–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2018.07.002, 2018. a
Valla, D., Piola, A. R., Meinen, C. S., and Campos, E.: Strong mixing and recirculation in the northwestern Argentine Basin, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 123, 4624–4648, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC013907, 2018. a, b, c
Wang, Q., Danilov, S., Sidorenko, D., Timmermann, R., Wekerle, C., Wang, X., Jung, T., and Schröter, J.: The Finite Element Sea Ice-Ocean Model (FESOM) v.1.4: formulation of an ocean general circulation model, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 663–693, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-663-2014, 2014. a
Winton, M.: A reformulated three-layer sea ice model, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 17, 525–531, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<0525:ARTLSI>2.0.CO;2, 2000. a
Wunsch, C. and Heimbach, P.: Practical global oceanic state estimation, Physica D, 230, 197–208, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physd.2006.09.040, 2007. a
Wunsch, C. and Heimbach, P.: Dynamically and kinematically consistent global ocean circulation and ice state estimates, in: International Geophysics, Vol. 103, 553–579, Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-391851-2.00021-0, 2013. a
Xu, X., Chassignet, E. P., and Wallcraft, A. J.: Impact of vertical resolution on representing baroclinic modes and water mass distribution in the North Atlantic, Ocean Model., 186, 102261, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2023.102261, 2023. a, b
Zenk, W.: Temperature fluctuations and current shear in Antarctic Bottom Water at the Vema Sill, Prog. Oceanogr., 77, 276–284, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2006.05.006, 2008. a, b
Zenk, W. and Visbeck, M.: Structure and evolution of the abyssal jet in the Vema Channel of the South Atlantic, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 85, 244–260, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2012.07.033, 2013. a, b
Zweng, M. M., Reagan, J. R., Seidov, D., Boyer, T. P., Locarnini, R. A., Garcia, H. E., Mishonov, A. V., Baranova, O. K., Weathers, K. W., Paver, C. R., and Smolyar, I. V.: World ocean atlas 2018, volume 2: Salinity, NOAA, https://doi.org/10.25923/9pgv-1224, 2019. a
Short summary
Numerical ocean models struggle to reproduce abyssal water properties and the northward spreading of cold, dense water from the Southern Ocean. We tested whether finer vertical or horizontal grid spacing improves performance. Adding more vertical layers near the seafloor improves how models represent cold abyssal water and inter-basin pathways. Finer horizontal spacing alone degrades abyssal properties. Combining both refinements better captures abyssal water mass structure in narrow passages.
Numerical ocean models struggle to reproduce abyssal water properties and the northward...
