Articles | Volume 22, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-549-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-549-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
12 Feb 2026
Research article |
| 12 Feb 2026
| 12 Feb 2026
Eddy kinetic energy variability from 30 years of altimetry in the Mediterranean Sea
Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats, IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain
Vincent Combes
Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats, IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain
Departament de Física, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Bàrbara Barceló-Llull
Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats, IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain
Ananda Pascual
Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats, IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain
Related authors
Alexander Hayward, Nishka Dasgupta, Ronan McAdam, Mark R. Payne, Roshin P. Raj, Giulia Bonino, Sourav Chatterjee, Vincent Combes, Dimitra Denaxa, Francesco De Rovere, Pia Englyst, Veera Haapaniemi, Paul Hargous, Jacob Høyer, K. Ajith Joseph, Beatriz Lopes, Ana Oliveira, João Paixão, Fabiola Silva, Saradhy Surendran, Artemis Zegna-Rata, and Steffen Olsen
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-590, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-590, 2025
Preprint under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
We present a global marine heatwave dataset (1982–2024) based on satellite sea surface temperature. The dataset applies multiple definitions in parallel, varying baselines, thresholds, detrending, and event durations. It enables consistent comparisons of marine heatwave characterisation across methods and supports climate monitoring, model evaluation, and ecological impact studies.
Alexander Hayward, Nishka Dasgupta, Ronan McAdam, Mark R. Payne, Roshin P. Raj, Giulia Bonino, Sourav Chatterjee, Vincent Combes, Dimitra Denaxa, Francesco De Rovere, Pia Englyst, Veera Haapaniemi, Paul Hargous, Jacob Høyer, K. Ajith Joseph, Beatriz Lopes, Ana Oliveira, João Paixão, Fabiola Silva, Saradhy Surendran, Artemis Zegna-Rata, and Steffen Olsen
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-590, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-590, 2025
Preprint under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
We present a global marine heatwave dataset (1982–2024) based on satellite sea surface temperature. The dataset applies multiple definitions in parallel, varying baselines, thresholds, detrending, and event durations. It enables consistent comparisons of marine heatwave characterisation across methods and supports climate monitoring, model evaluation, and ecological impact studies.
Blanca Fernández-Álvarez, Bàrbara Barceló-Llull, and Ananda Pascual
State Planet Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2025-13, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2025-13, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for SP
Short summary
Short summary
In 2024, the Mediterranean Sea experienced more marine heatwave days than any other year in the past two decades, regardless of the detection method: a fixed baseline (1982–2011), a 20-year moving baseline, or detrended temperature data. The eastern Mediterranean also recorded the highest mean durations across all methods and mean intensities under the fixed baseline. Stating the baseline used is critical in marine heatwave studies, as it affects comparability and interpretation of results.
Laura Gómez-Navarro, Maxime Ballarotta, Diego Cortés-Morales, Marie-Isabelle Pujol, Laura Fortunato, Baptiste Mourre, and Ananda Pascual
State Planet Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2025-17, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2025-17, 2025
Preprint under review for SP
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding how the ocean moves heat, nutrients, and pollution is vital for climate studies and ecosystem health. We examined eddies in the western Mediterranean Sea using innovative satellite observations from the Surface Water and Ocean Topography mission. Compared to existing data, we detected major differences in eddy patterns. These advances improve our ability to monitor the ocean, manage marine pollution, and support sustainable maritime activities.
Blanca Fernández-Álvarez, Bàrbara Barceló-Llull, and Ananda Pascual
Ocean Sci., 21, 1987–1999, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1987-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1987-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Marine heatwave (MHW) standard detection methods use a fixed baseline, showing rising MHW frequency and intensity due to global warming. To address this, alternative approaches separate long-term warming from extreme events. Here we compare two in the Balearic Sea: a moving baseline and detrended data. From 1982 to 2023, we found a warming trend of 0.036 °C per year, with major MHWs in 2003 and 2022 identified by all methods. Only the fixed baseline shows rising MHW duration and intensity.
Ana Laura Delgado, Vincent Combes, and Gotzon Basterretxea
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3467, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3467, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Marine heatwaves are becoming more frequent and disruptive. Using four decades of satellite data, we found that the Patagonian Shelf now experiences about 2.5 events each year. These heatwaves are lasting longer in the north, while the south shows no clear trend. Our study also shows that the way heatwaves are measured has little effect on results in this region, helping improve future climate monitoring.
Antonio Sánchez-Román, Flora Gues, Romain Bourdalle-Badie, Marie-Isabelle Pujol, Ananda Pascual, and Marie Drévillon
State Planet, 4-osr8, 4, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-4-osr8-4-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-4-osr8-4-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the changing pattern of the Gulf Stream over the last 3 decades as observed in the altimetric record (1993–2022). Changes in the Gulf Stream path have an effect on its speed (and associated energy) and also on waters transported towards the subpolar North Atlantic, impacting Europe's climate. The observed shifts in the paths seem to be linked to variability in the North Atlantic Ocean during winter that may play an important role.
Antonio Sánchez-Román, M. Isabelle Pujol, Yannice Faugère, and Ananda Pascual
Ocean Sci., 19, 793–809, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-793-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-793-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This paper assesses the performance of the latest version (DT2021) of global gridded altimetry products distributed through the CMEMS and C3S Copernicus programs on the retrieval of sea level in the coastal zone of the European seas with respect to the previous DT2018 version. This comparison is made using an external independent dataset. DT2021 sea level products better solve the signal in the coastal band.
Roxane Tzortzis, Andrea M. Doglioli, Stéphanie Barrillon, Anne A. Petrenko, Francesco d'Ovidio, Lloyd Izard, Melilotus Thyssen, Ananda Pascual, Bàrbara Barceló-Llull, Frédéric Cyr, Marc Tedetti, Nagib Bhairy, Pierre Garreau, Franck Dumas, and Gérald Gregori
Biogeosciences, 18, 6455–6477, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-6455-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-6455-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This work analyzes an original high-resolution data set collected in the Mediterranean Sea. The major result is the impact of a fine-scale frontal structure on the distribution of phytoplankton groups, in an area of moderate energy with oligotrophic conditions. Our results provide an in situ confirmation of the findings obtained by previous modeling studies and remote sensing about the structuring effect of the fine-scale ocean dynamics on the structure of the phytoplankton community.
Cited articles
Abram, N., Gattuso, J.-P., Prakash, A., Cheng, L., Chidichimo, M., Crate, S., Enomoto, H., Garschagen, M., Gruber, N., Harper, S., Holland, E., Kudela, R., Rice, J., Steffen, K., and von Schuckmann, K.: Framing and Context of the Report, in: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, edited by: Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D. C., Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Tignor, M., Poloczanska, E., Mintenbeck, K., Alegría, A., Nicolai, M., Okem, A., Petzold, J., Rama, B., and Weyer, N. M., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 73–129, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.003, 2019. a
Amitai, Y., Lehahn, Y., Lazar, A., and Heifetz, E.: Surface circulation of the eastern Mediterranean Levantine basin: Insights from analyzing 14 years of satellite altimetry data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 115, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006147, 2010. a
Amores, A., Jordà, G., Arsouze, T., and Le Sommer, J.: Up to What Extent Can We Characterize Ocean Eddies Using Present-Day Gridded Altimetric Products?, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 123, 7220–7236, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014140, 2018. a
Amores, A., Jordà, G., and Monserrat, S.: Ocean Eddies in the Mediterranean Sea From Satellite Altimetry: Sensitivity to Satellite Track Location, Front. Mar. Sci., 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00703, 2019. a
Ballarotta, M., Ubelmann, C., Pujol, M.-I., Taburet, G., Fournier, F., Legeais, J.-F., Faugère, Y., Delepoulle, A., Chelton, D., Dibarboure, G., and Picot, N.: On the resolutions of ocean altimetry maps, Ocean Sci., 15, 1091–1109, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1091-2019, 2019. a, b
Barabinot, Y., Speich, S., and Carton, X.: Defining Mesoscale Eddies Boundaries From In-Situ Data and a Theoretical Framework, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 129, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JC020422, 2024. a
Barboni, A., Lazar, A., Stegner, A., and Moschos, E.: Lagrangian eddy tracking reveals the Eratosthenes anticyclonic attractor in the eastern Levantine Basin, Ocean Sci., 17, 1231–1250, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1231-2021, 2021. a, b
Barboni, A., Coadou-Chaventon, S., Stegner, A., Le Vu, B., and Dumas, F.: How subsurface and double-core anticyclones intensify the winter mixed-layer deepening in the Mediterranean Sea, Ocean Sci., 19, 229–250, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-229-2023, 2023. a
Barceló-Llull, B., Sangrà, P., Pallàs-Sanz, E., Barton, E. D., Estrada-Allis, S. N., Martínez-Marrero, A., Aguiar-González, B., Grisolía, D., Gordo, C., Ángel Rodríguez-Santana, Ángeles Marrero-Díaz, and Arístegui, J.: Anatomy of a subtropical intrathermocline eddy, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 124, 126–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2017.03.012, 2017. a, b
Barral, Q.-B., Zakardjian, B., Dumas, F., Garreau, P., Testor, P., and Beuvier, J.: Characterization of fronts in the Western Mediterranean with a special focus on the North Balearic Front, Prog. Oceanogr., 197, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2021.102636, 2021. a
Becker, K. W., Devresse, Q., Prieto-Mollar, X., Hinrichs, K.-U., and Engel, A.: Mixed-layer lipidomes suggest offshore transport of energy-rich and essential lipids by cyclonic eddies, Commun. Earth Environ., 6, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02152-0, 2025. a
Bessières, L., Rio, M. H., Dufau, C., Boone, C., and Pujol, M. I.: Ocean state indicators from MyOcean altimeter products, Ocean Sci., 9, 545–560, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-545-2013, 2013. a, b, c
Bethoux, J., Gentili, B., Morin, P., Nicolas, E., Pierre, C., and Ruiz-Pino, D.: The Mediterranean Sea: a miniature ocean for climatic and environmental studies and a key for the climatic functioning of the North Atlantic, Prog. Oceanogr., 44, 131–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6611(99)00023-3, 1999. a
Beuvier, J., Béranger, K., Lebeaupin Brossier, C., Somot, S., Sevault, F., Drillet, Y., Bourdallé-Badie, R., Ferry, N., and Lyard, F.: Spreading of the Western Mediterranean Deep Water after winter 2005: Time scales and deep cyclone transport, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 117, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007679, 2012. a
Bolado-Penagos, M., Sala, I., Gomiz-Pascual, J. J., Romero-Cózar, J., González-Fernández, D., Reyes-Pérez, J., Vázquez, A., and Bruno, M.: Revising the Effects of Local and Remote Atmospheric Forcing on the Atlantic Jet and Western Alboran Gyre Dynamics, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 126, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JC016173, 2021. a
Bryden, H. L., Candela, J., and Kinder, T. H.: Exchange through the Strait of Gibraltar, Prog. Oceanogr, 33, 201–248, https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6611(94)90028-0, 1994. a
Chelton, D., Schlax, and Samelson, R.: Global observations of nonlinear mesoscale eddies, Prog. Oceanogr., 91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2011.01.002, 2011. a
CMEMS: European Seas Gridded L 4 Sea Surface Heights And Derived Variables Reprocessed 1993 Ongoing, EU Copernicus Marine Service Information (CMEMS), Marine Data Store (MDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.48670/moi-00141, 2024a. a
CMEMS: Global Ocean Gridded L 4 Sea Surface Heights And Derived Variables Reprocessed 1993 Ongoing, EU Copernicus Marine Service Information (CMEMS), Marine Data Store (MDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.48670/moi-00148, 2024b. a
CMEMS: Global Ocean Gridded L 4 Sea Surface Heights And Derived Variables Reprocessed Copernicus Climate Service, EU Copernicus Marine Service Information (CMEMS), Marine Data Store (MDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.48670/moi-00145, 2024c. a
CMEMS: European Seas Along Track L 3 Sea Surface Heights Reprocessed 1993 Ongoing Tailored For Data Assimilation, EU Copernicus Marine Service Information (CMEMS), Marine Data Store (MDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.48670/moi-00139, 2024d. a
Escudier, R., Clementi, E., Cipollone, A., Pistoia, J., Drudi, M., Grandi, A., Lyubartsev, V., Lecci, R., Aydogdu, A., Delrosso, D., Omar, M., Masina, S., Coppini, G., and Pinardi, N.: A High Resolution Reanalysis for the Mediterranean Sea, Front. Earth Sci., https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.702285, 2021. a, b
Fu, L.-L., Pavelsky, T., Cretaux, J.-F., Morrow, R., Farrar, J. T., Vaze, P., Sengenes, P., Vinogradova-Shiffer, N., Sylvestre-Baron, A., Picot, N., and Dibarboure, G.: The Surface Water and Ocean Topography Mission: A Breakthrough in Radar Remote Sensing of the Ocean and Land Surface Water, Geophys. Res. Lett., 51, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL107652, 2024. a
Gačić, M., Borzelli, G. L. E., Civitarese, G., Cardin, V., and Yari, S.: Can internal processes sustain reversals of the ocean upper circulation? The Ionian Sea example, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL043216, 2010. a, b, c
Gandham, H., Dasari, H. P., Luong, T. M., Attada, R., Hassan, W. U., Gopinathan, P. A., Saharwardi, M. S., and Hoteit, I.: Declining summer circulation over the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, Clim. Atmos. Sci., 8, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-025-01072-2, 2025. a
Gaube, P., J. McGillicuddy Jr., D., and Moulin, A. J.: Mesoscale Eddies Modulate Mixed Layer Depth Globally, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 1505–1512, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL080006, 2019. a
Heburn, G. W. and La Violette, P. E.: Variations in the structure of the anticyclonic gyres found in the Alboran Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 95, 1599–1613, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC095iC02p01599, 1990. a
Horton, C., Clifford, M., Schmitz, J., and Kantha, L. H.: A real-time oceanographic nowcast/forecast system for the Mediterranean Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 102, 25123–25156, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JC00533, 1997. a
Hu, S., Sprintall, J., Guan, C., McPhaden, M. J., Wang, F., Hu, D., and Cai, W.: Deep-reaching acceleration of global mean ocean circulation over the past two decades, Sci. Adv., 6, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax7727, 2020. a
Ioannou, A., Stegner, A., Dubos, T., Le Vu, B., and Speich, S.: Generation and Intensification of Mesoscale Anticyclones by Orographic Wind Jets: The Case of Ierapetra Eddies Forced by the Etesians, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 125, e2019JC015810, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015810, 2020. a
Iudicone, D., Santoleri, R., Marullo, S., and Gerosa, P.: Sea level variability and surface eddy statistics in the Mediterranean Sea from TOPEX/POSEIDON data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 103, 2995–3011, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JC01577, 1998. a
James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., and Taylor, J.: An Introduction to Statistical Learning, Springer, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38747-0, 2023. a
Juza, M., Escudier, R., Pascual, A., Pujol, M.-I., Taburet, G., Troupin, C., Mourre, B., and Tintoré, J.: Impacts of reprocessed altimetry on the surface circulation and variability of the Western Alboran Gyre, Adv. Space Res., 58, 277–288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2016.05.026, 2016. a
Kalimeris, A. and Kassis, D.: Sea surface circulation variability in the Ionian-Adriatic Seas, Prog. Oceanogr., 189, 102454, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2020.102454, 2020. a
Kurkin, A., Kurkina, O., Rybin, A., and Talipova, T.: Comparative analysis of the first baroclinic Rossby radius in the Baltic, Black, Okhotsk, and Mediterranean seas, Russ. J. Earth. Sci., 20, https://doi.org/10.2205/2020ES000737, 2020. a
Larnicol, G., Ayoub, N., and Le Traon, P.: Major changes in Mediterranean Sea level variability from 7 years of TOPEX/Poseidon and ERS-1/2 data, J. Mar. Syst., 33-34, 63–89, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(02)00053-2, 2002. a, b
Le Traon, P. Y., Reppucci, A., Alvarez Fanjul, E., Aouf, L., Behrens, A., Belmonte, M., Bentamy, A., Bertino, L., Brando, V. E., Kreiner, M. B., Benkiran, M., Carval, T., Ciliberti, S. A., Claustre, H., Clementi, E., Coppini, G., Cossarini, G., De Alfonso Alonso-Muñoyerro, M., Delamarche, A., Dibarboure, G., Dinessen, F., Drevillon, M., Drillet, Y., Faugère, Y., Fernández, V., Fleming, A., Garcia-Hermosa, M. I., Sotillo, M. G., Garric, G., Gasparin, F., Giordan, C., Gehlen, M., Grégoire, M. L., Guinehut, S., Hamon, M., Harris, C., Hernandez, F., Hinkler, J. B., Hoyer, J., Karvonen, J., Kay, S., King, R., Lavergne, T., Lemieux-Dudon, B., Lima, L., Mao, C., Martin, M. J., Masina, S., Melet, A., Buongiorno Nardelli, B., Nolan, G., Pascual, A., Pistoia, J., Palazov, A., Piolle, J. F., Pujol, M. I., Pequignet, A. C., Peneva, E., Pérez Gómez, B., Petit de la Villeon, L., Pinardi, N., Pisano, A., Pouliquen, S., Reid, R., Remy, E., Santoleri, R., Siddorn, J., She, J., Staneva, J., Stoffelen, A., Tonani, M., Vandenbulcke, L., von Schuckmann, K., Volpe, G., Wettre, C., and Zacharioudaki, A.: From Observation to Information and Users: The Copernicus Marine Service Perspective, Front. Mar. Sci., 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00234, 2019. a, b
Martínez-Moreno, J., Hogg, A. M., England, M. H., Constantinou, N. C., Kiss, A. E., and Morrison, A. K.: Global changes in oceanic mesoscale currents over the satellite altimetry record, Nat. Clim. Change, 11, 397–403, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01006-9, 2021. a, b, c
Mason, E., Pascual, A., and McWilliams, J. C.: A New Sea Surface Height-Based Code for Oceanic Mesoscale Eddy Tracking, J. Atmos. Ocean Tech., 31, 1181–1188, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00019.1, 2014. a, b, c
Mason, E., Barceló-Llull, B., Sánchez-Román, A., Rodríguez-Tarry, D., Cutolo, E., Delepoulle, A., Ruiz, S., and Pascual, A.: Chapter 8 – Fronts, eddies and mesoscale circulation in the Mediterranean Sea, in: Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea, edited by: Schroeder, K. and Chiggiato, J., Elsevier, 263–287, ISBN 978-0-12-823692-5, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823692-5.00003-0, 2023. a, b, c
Menna, M., Poulain, P.-M., Zodiatis, G., and Gertman, I.: On the surface circulation of the Levantine sub-basin derived from Lagrangian drifters and satellite altimetry data, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 65, 46–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2012.02.008, 2012. a, b
Millot, C. and Taupier-Letage, I.: Circulation in the Mediterranean Sea, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 29–66, ISBN 978-3-540-31492-9, https://doi.org/10.1007/b107143, 2005. a
Mkhinini, N., Coimbra, A. L. S., Stegner, A., Arsouze, T., Taupier-Letage, I., and Béranger, K.: Long-lived mesoscale eddies in the eastern Mediterranean Sea: Analysis of 20 years of AVISO geostrophic velocities, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119, 8603–8626, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JC010176, 2014. a
Morrow, R., Fu, L.-L., Ardhuin, F., Benkiran, M., Chapron, B., Cosme, E., d'Ovidio, F., Farrar, J. T., Gille, S. T., Lapeyre, G., Le Traon, P.-Y., Pascual, A., Ponte, A., Qiu, B., Rascle, N., Ubelmann, C., Wang, J., and Zaron, E. D.: Global Observations of Fine-Scale Ocean Surface Topography With the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) Mission, Front. Mar. Sci., 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00232, 2019. a
Pascual, A., Pujol, M.-I., Larnicol, G., Le Traon, P.-Y., and Rio, M.-H.: Mesoscale mapping capabilities of multisatellite altimeter missions: First results with real data in the Mediterranean Sea, J. Mar. Syst., 65, 190–211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2004.12.004, 2007. a, b, c, d
Pegliasco, C., Chaigneau, A., Morrow, R., and Dumas, F.: Detection and tracking of mesoscale eddies in the Mediterranean Sea: A comparison between the Sea Level Anomaly and the Absolute Dynamic Topography fields, Adv. Space Res., 68, 401–419, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2020.03.039, 2021. a, b, c
Pegliasco, C., Delepoulle, A., Mason, E., Morrow, R., Faugère, Y., and Dibarboure, G.: META3.1exp: a new global mesoscale eddy trajectory atlas derived from altimetry, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1087–1107, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1087-2022, 2022. a, b, c
Poulain, P.-M., Menna, M., and Mauri, E.: Surface Geostrophic Circulation of the Mediterranean Sea Derived from Drifter and Satellite Altimeter Data, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 42, 973–990, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0159.1, 2012. a
Pujol, M.-I., Taburet, G., and team SL-TAC: Quality Information Document for Sea Level TAC DUACS products, https://documentation.marine.copernicus.eu/QUID/CMEMS-SL-QUID-008-032-068.pdf (last access: 23 July 2024), 2023. a
Renault, L., McWilliams, J. C., and Masson, S.: Satellite Observations of Imprint of Oceanic Current on Wind Stress by Air-Sea Coupling, Sci. Rep.-UK, 7, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17939-1, 2017. a
Sánchez-Garrido, J. C. and Nadal, I.: The Alboran Sea circulation and its biological response: A review, Front. Mar. Sci., 9, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.933390, 2022. a, b, c
Sánchez-Garrido, J. C., García Lafuente, J., Álvarez Fanjul, E., Sotillo, M. G., and de los Santos, F. J.: What does cause the collapse of the Western Alboran Gyre? Results of an operational ocean model, Prog. Oceanogr., 116, 142–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2013.07.002, 2013. a
Sánchez-Román, A., Sannino, G., García-Lafuente, J., Carillo, A., and Criado-Aldeanueva, F.: Transport estimates at the western section of the Strait of Gibraltar: A combined experimental and numerical modeling study, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JC005023, 2009. a
Schroeder, K., Lafuente, J., Josey, S., Artale, V., Buongiorno Nardelli, B., Carrillo, A., Gacic, M., Gasparini, G., Herrmann, M., Lionello, P., Ludwig, W., Millot, C., Özsoy, E., Pisacane, G., Sánchez-Garrido, J., Sannino, G., Santoleri, R., Somot, S., Struglia, M., and Zodiatis, G.: Circulation Of The Mediterranean Sea And Its Variability, Elsevier, 187–256, ISBN 9780124160422, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416042-2.00003-3, 2012. a
Stan Development Team: Stan Reference Manual, stan Reference Manual, Version 2.36, https://mc-stan.org/docs/2_36/reference-manual-2_36.pdf (last access: 12 December 2024), 2021. a
Stegner, A., Le Vu, B., Dumas, F., Ghannami, M. A., Nicolle, A., Durand, C., and Faugere, Y.: Cyclone-Anticyclone Asymmetry of Eddy Detection on Gridded Altimetry Product in the Mediterranean Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 126, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC017475, 2021. a, b
Sutyrin, G., Stegner, A., Taupier-Letage, I., and Teinturier, S.: Amplification of a Surface-Intensified Eddy Drift along a Steep Shelf in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 39, 1729–1741, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JPO4106.1, 2009. a
Tsimplis, M. and Bryden, H.: Estimation of the transports through the Strait of Gibraltar, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 47, 2219–2242, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0637(00)00024-8, 2000. a
Vargas-Yáñez, M., Plaza, F., Lafuente, J., Sarhan, T., Vargas, J., and Vélez-Belchí, P.: About the seasonal variability of the Alboran Sea circulation, J. Mar. Syst., 35, 229–248, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(02)00128-8, 2002. a, b
Vélez-Belchí, P., Vargas-Yáñez, M., and Tintoré, J.: Observation of a western Alborán gyre migration event, Prog. Oceanogr., 66, 190–210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2004.09.006, 2005. a
Verger-Miralles, E., Mourre, B., Gómez-Navarro, L., Barceló-Llull, B., Casas, B., Cutolo, E., Díaz-Barroso, L., d'Ovidio, F., Tarry, D. R., Zarokanellos, N. D., and Pascual, A.: SWOT Enhances Small-Scale Eddy Detection in the Mediterranean Sea, Geophys. Res. Lett., 52, https://doi.org/10.1029/2025GL116480, 2025. a
Viúdez, A., Pinot, J.-M., and Haney, R. L.: On the upper layer circulation in the Alboran Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 103, 21653–21666, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JC01082, 1998. a
Wang, Y., Chen, X., Han, G., Jin, P., and Yang, J.: From 1/4° to 1/8°: Influence of Spatial Resolution on Eddy Detection Using Altimeter Data, Remote Sens., 14, 149, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14010149, 2022. a
Wang, Y., Zhang, S., and Jia, Y.: Enhanced resolution capability of SWOT sea surface height measurements and their application in monitoring ocean dynamics variability, Ocean Sci., 21, 931–944, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-931-2025, 2025. a
Wilkin, J. L. and Morrow, R. A.: Eddy kinetic energy and momentum flux in the Southern Ocean: Comparison of a global eddy-resolving model with altimeter, drifter, and current-meter data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 99, 7903–7916, https://doi.org/10.1029/93JC03505, 1994. a
Yue, S. and Wang, C.: The Mann-Kendall test modified by effective sample size to detect trend in serially correlated hydrological series, Water. Resour. Manage., 18, 201–218, https://doi.org/10.1023/B:WARM.0000043140.61082.60, 2004. a
Zodiatis, G., Brenner, S., Gertman, I., Ozer, T., Simoncelli, S., Ioannou, M., and Savva, S.: Twenty years of in-situ monitoring in the south-eastern Mediterranean Levantine basin: Basic elements of the thermohaline structure and of the mesoscale circulation during 1995–2015, Front. Mar. Sci., 9, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.1074504, 2023. a
Short summary
Over the last three decades, satellites have revealed rising activity of swirling ocean currents in the Mediterranean Sea. We show that the strength of this increase depends strongly on how satellite data are combined. Products that merge many satellites may give the impression of stronger changes simply because coverage improved over time. This work underlines the importance of using stable and consistent data sets to track long-term changes in ocean variability.
Over the last three decades, satellites have revealed rising activity of swirling ocean currents...
