Articles | Volume 21, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-3341-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-3341-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
10 Dec 2025
Research article |
| 10 Dec 2025
| 10 Dec 2025
Observations of turbulent mixing in the Dotson Ice Shelf cavity
Maren Elisabeth Richter
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Centre for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
Karen J. Heywood
Centre for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
Rob A. Hall
Centre for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
Peter E. D. Davis
British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK
Related authors
Greg H. Leonard, Kate E. Turner, Maren E. Richter, Maddy S. Whittaker, and Inga J. Smith
The Cryosphere, 15, 4999–5006, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4999-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4999-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
McMurdo Sound sea ice can generally be partitioned into two regimes: a stable fast-ice cover forming south of approximately 77.6° S and a more dynamic region north of 77.6° S that is regularly impacted by polynyas. In 2019, a stable fast-ice cover formed unusually late due to repeated break-out events. This subsequently affected sea-ice operations in the 2019/20 field season. We analysed the 2019 sea-ice conditions and found a strong correlation with unusually large southerly wind events.
Daisy D. Pickup, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Karen J. Heywood, Francis Glassup, Emily M. Hammermeister, Sharon E. Stammerjohn, Gareth A. Lee, Socratis Loucaides, Bastien Y. Queste, Benjamin G. M. Webber, and Patricia L. Yager
Ocean Sci., 21, 2727–2741, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2727-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2727-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Autonomous platforms in the Amundsen Sea have allowed for detection of isolated water masses that are colder, saltier and denser than overlying water. They are also associated with a higher dissolved inorganic carbon concentration and lower pH. The water masses, referred to as lenses, could have implications for the transfer of heat and storage of carbon in the region. We hypothesise that they form in surrounding areas that experience intense cooling and sea ice formation in autumn/winter.
Shenjie Zhou, Pierre Dutrieux, Claudia F. Giulivi, Adrian Jenkins, Alessandro Silvano, Christopher Auckland, E. Povl Abrahamsen, Michael Meredith, Irena Vaňková, Keith Nicholls, Peter E. D. Davis, Svein Østerhus, Arnold L. Gordon, Christopher J. Zappa, Tiago S. Dotto, Ted Scambos, Kathryn L. Gunn, Stephen R. Rintoul, Shigeru Aoki, Craig Stevens, Chengyan Liu, Sukyoung Yun, Tae-Wan Kim, Won Sang Lee, Markus Janout, Tore Hattermann, Julius Lauber, Elin Darelius, Anna Wåhlin, Leo Middleton, Pasquale Castagno, Giorgio Budillon, Karen J. Heywood, Jennifer Graham, Stephen Dye, Daisuke Hirano, and Una Kim Miller
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 5693–5706, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-5693-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-5693-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We created the first standardised dataset of in-situ ocean measurements time series from around Antarctica collected since 1970s. This includes temperature, salinity, pressure, and currents recorded by instruments deployed in icy, challenging conditions. Our analysis highlights the dominance of tidal currents and separates these from other patterns to study regional energy distribution. This unique dataset offers a foundation for future research on Antarctic ocean dynamics and ice interactions.
Christian T. Wild, Tasha Snow, Tiago S. Dotto, Peter E. D. Davis, Scott Tyler, Ted A. Scambos, Erin C. Pettit, and Karen J. Heywood
Ocean Sci., 21, 2605–2629, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2605-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2605-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Thwaites Glacier is retreating due to warm ocean water melting it from below, but its thick ice shelf makes this heat hard to monitor. Using hot-water drilling, we placed sensors beneath the floating ice, revealing how surface freezing in Pine Island Bay influences heat at depth. Alongside gradual warming, we found bursts of heat that could speed up melting at the grounding zone, which may become more common as sea ice declines.
Meredith G. Meyer, Esther Portela, Walker O. Smith Jr., and Karen J. Heywood
Ocean Sci., 21, 1223–1236, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1223-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1223-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
During the annual phytoplankton bloom, rates of primary production and carbon export in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, are uncoupled from each other and from oxygen and carbon stocks. These biogeochemical rates support the high-productivity, low-export classification of the region and suggest that environmental factors influence these stocks and rates differently and make projections under future climate change scenarios difficult.
Ria Oelerich, Karen J. Heywood, Gillian M. Damerell, Marcel du Plessis, Louise C. Biddle, and Sebastiaan Swart
Ocean Sci., 19, 1465–1482, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1465-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1465-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
At the southern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, relatively warm waters encounter the colder waters surrounding Antarctica. Observations from underwater vehicles and altimetry show that medium-sized cold-core eddies influence the southern boundary's barrier properties by strengthening the slopes of constant density lines across it and amplifying its associated jet. As a result, the ability of exchanging properties, such as heat, across the southern boundary is reduced.
Pierre L'Hégaret, Florian Schütte, Sabrina Speich, Gilles Reverdin, Dariusz B. Baranowski, Rena Czeschel, Tim Fischer, Gregory R. Foltz, Karen J. Heywood, Gerd Krahmann, Rémi Laxenaire, Caroline Le Bihan, Philippe Le Bot, Stéphane Leizour, Callum Rollo, Michael Schlundt, Elizabeth Siddle, Corentin Subirade, Dongxiao Zhang, and Johannes Karstensen
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 1801–1830, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-1801-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-1801-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In early 2020, the EUREC4A-OA/ATOMIC experiment took place in the northwestern Tropical Atlantic Ocean, a dynamical region where different water masses interact. Four oceanographic vessels and a fleet of autonomous devices were deployed to study the processes at play and sample the upper ocean, each with its own observing capability. The article first describes the data calibration and validation and second their cross-validation, using a hierarchy of instruments and estimating the uncertainty.
Manoj Joshi, Robert A. Hall, David P. Stevens, and Ed Hawkins
Earth Syst. Dynam., 14, 443–455, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-443-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-443-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The 18.6-year lunar nodal cycle arises from variations in the angle of the Moon's orbital plane and affects ocean tides. In this work we use a climate model to examine the effect of this cycle on the ocean, surface, and atmosphere. The timing of anomalies is consistent with the so-called slowdown in global warming and has implications for when global temperatures will exceed 1.5 ℃ above pre-industrial levels. Regional anomalies have implications for seasonal climate areas such as Europe.
Peter M. F. Sheehan, Gillian M. Damerell, Philip J. Leadbitter, Karen J. Heywood, and Rob A. Hall
Ocean Sci., 19, 77–92, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-77-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-77-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We calculate the rate of turbulent kinetic energy dissipation, i.e. the mixing driven by small-scale ocean turbulence, in the western tropical Atlantic Ocean via two methods. We find good agreement between the results of both. A region of elevated mixing is found between 200 and 500 m, and we calculate the associated heat and salt fluxes. We find that double-diffusive mixing in salt fingers, a common feature of the tropical oceans, drives larger heat and salt fluxes than the turbulent mixing.
Callum Rollo, Karen J. Heywood, and Rob A. Hall
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 11, 359–373, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-359-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-359-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using an underwater buoyancy-powered autonomous glider, we collected profiles of temperature and salinity from the ocean north-east of Barbados. Most of the temperature and salinity profiles contained staircase-like structures of alternating constant values and large gradients. We wrote an algorithm to identify these staircases. We hypothesise that these staircases are prevented from forming where background gradients in temperature and salinity are too great.
Michael P. Hemming, Jan Kaiser, Jacqueline Boutin, Liliane Merlivat, Karen J. Heywood, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Gareth A. Lee, Marcos Cobas García, David Antoine, and Kiminori Shitashima
Ocean Sci., 18, 1245–1262, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1245-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1245-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
An underwater glider mission was carried out in spring 2016 near a mooring in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. The glider deployment served as a test of a prototype ion-sensitive field-effect transistor pH sensor. Mean net community production rates were estimated from glider and buoy measurements of dissolved oxygen and inorganic carbon concentrations before and during the spring bloom. Incorporating advection is important for accurate mass budgets. Unexpected metabolic quotients were found.
Yixi Zheng, David P. Stevens, Karen J. Heywood, Benjamin G. M. Webber, and Bastien Y. Queste
The Cryosphere, 16, 3005–3019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3005-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3005-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
New observations reveal the Thwaites gyre in a habitually ice-covered region in the Amundsen Sea for the first time. This gyre rotates anticlockwise, despite the wind here favouring clockwise gyres like the Pine Island Bay gyre – the only other ocean gyre reported in the Amundsen Sea. We use an ocean model to suggest that sea ice alters the wind stress felt by the ocean and hence determines the gyre direction and strength. These processes may also be applied to other gyres in polar oceans.
Yanxin Wang, Karen J. Heywood, David P. Stevens, and Gillian M. Damerell
Ocean Sci., 18, 839–855, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-839-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-839-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
It is important that climate models give accurate projections of future extremes in summer and winter sea surface temperature because these affect many features of the global climate system. Our results demonstrate that some models would give large errors if used for future projections of these features, and models with more detailed representation of vertical structure in the ocean tend to have a better representation of sea surface temperature, particularly in summer.
Greg H. Leonard, Kate E. Turner, Maren E. Richter, Maddy S. Whittaker, and Inga J. Smith
The Cryosphere, 15, 4999–5006, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4999-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4999-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
McMurdo Sound sea ice can generally be partitioned into two regimes: a stable fast-ice cover forming south of approximately 77.6° S and a more dynamic region north of 77.6° S that is regularly impacted by polynyas. In 2019, a stable fast-ice cover formed unusually late due to repeated break-out events. This subsequently affected sea-ice operations in the 2019/20 field season. We analysed the 2019 sea-ice conditions and found a strong correlation with unusually large southerly wind events.
Bjorn Stevens, Sandrine Bony, David Farrell, Felix Ament, Alan Blyth, Christopher Fairall, Johannes Karstensen, Patricia K. Quinn, Sabrina Speich, Claudia Acquistapace, Franziska Aemisegger, Anna Lea Albright, Hugo Bellenger, Eberhard Bodenschatz, Kathy-Ann Caesar, Rebecca Chewitt-Lucas, Gijs de Boer, Julien Delanoë, Leif Denby, Florian Ewald, Benjamin Fildier, Marvin Forde, Geet George, Silke Gross, Martin Hagen, Andrea Hausold, Karen J. Heywood, Lutz Hirsch, Marek Jacob, Friedhelm Jansen, Stefan Kinne, Daniel Klocke, Tobias Kölling, Heike Konow, Marie Lothon, Wiebke Mohr, Ann Kristin Naumann, Louise Nuijens, Léa Olivier, Robert Pincus, Mira Pöhlker, Gilles Reverdin, Gregory Roberts, Sabrina Schnitt, Hauke Schulz, A. Pier Siebesma, Claudia Christine Stephan, Peter Sullivan, Ludovic Touzé-Peiffer, Jessica Vial, Raphaela Vogel, Paquita Zuidema, Nicola Alexander, Lyndon Alves, Sophian Arixi, Hamish Asmath, Gholamhossein Bagheri, Katharina Baier, Adriana Bailey, Dariusz Baranowski, Alexandre Baron, Sébastien Barrau, Paul A. Barrett, Frédéric Batier, Andreas Behrendt, Arne Bendinger, Florent Beucher, Sebastien Bigorre, Edmund Blades, Peter Blossey, Olivier Bock, Steven Böing, Pierre Bosser, Denis Bourras, Pascale Bouruet-Aubertot, Keith Bower, Pierre Branellec, Hubert Branger, Michal Brennek, Alan Brewer, Pierre-Etienne Brilouet, Björn Brügmann, Stefan A. Buehler, Elmo Burke, Ralph Burton, Radiance Calmer, Jean-Christophe Canonici, Xavier Carton, Gregory Cato Jr., Jude Andre Charles, Patrick Chazette, Yanxu Chen, Michal T. Chilinski, Thomas Choularton, Patrick Chuang, Shamal Clarke, Hugh Coe, Céline Cornet, Pierre Coutris, Fleur Couvreux, Susanne Crewell, Timothy Cronin, Zhiqiang Cui, Yannis Cuypers, Alton Daley, Gillian M. Damerell, Thibaut Dauhut, Hartwig Deneke, Jean-Philippe Desbios, Steffen Dörner, Sebastian Donner, Vincent Douet, Kyla Drushka, Marina Dütsch, André Ehrlich, Kerry Emanuel, Alexandros Emmanouilidis, Jean-Claude Etienne, Sheryl Etienne-Leblanc, Ghislain Faure, Graham Feingold, Luca Ferrero, Andreas Fix, Cyrille Flamant, Piotr Jacek Flatau, Gregory R. Foltz, Linda Forster, Iulian Furtuna, Alan Gadian, Joseph Galewsky, Martin Gallagher, Peter Gallimore, Cassandra Gaston, Chelle Gentemann, Nicolas Geyskens, Andreas Giez, John Gollop, Isabelle Gouirand, Christophe Gourbeyre, Dörte de Graaf, Geiske E. de Groot, Robert Grosz, Johannes Güttler, Manuel Gutleben, Kashawn Hall, George Harris, Kevin C. Helfer, Dean Henze, Calvert Herbert, Bruna Holanda, Antonio Ibanez-Landeta, Janet Intrieri, Suneil Iyer, Fabrice Julien, Heike Kalesse, Jan Kazil, Alexander Kellman, Abiel T. Kidane, Ulrike Kirchner, Marcus Klingebiel, Mareike Körner, Leslie Ann Kremper, Jan Kretzschmar, Ovid Krüger, Wojciech Kumala, Armin Kurz, Pierre L'Hégaret, Matthieu Labaste, Tom Lachlan-Cope, Arlene Laing, Peter Landschützer, Theresa Lang, Diego Lange, Ingo Lange, Clément Laplace, Gauke Lavik, Rémi Laxenaire, Caroline Le Bihan, Mason Leandro, Nathalie Lefevre, Marius Lena, Donald Lenschow, Qiang Li, Gary Lloyd, Sebastian Los, Niccolò Losi, Oscar Lovell, Christopher Luneau, Przemyslaw Makuch, Szymon Malinowski, Gaston Manta, Eleni Marinou, Nicholas Marsden, Sebastien Masson, Nicolas Maury, Bernhard Mayer, Margarette Mayers-Als, Christophe Mazel, Wayne McGeary, James C. McWilliams, Mario Mech, Melina Mehlmann, Agostino Niyonkuru Meroni, Theresa Mieslinger, Andreas Minikin, Peter Minnett, Gregor Möller, Yanmichel Morfa Avalos, Caroline Muller, Ionela Musat, Anna Napoli, Almuth Neuberger, Christophe Noisel, David Noone, Freja Nordsiek, Jakub L. Nowak, Lothar Oswald, Douglas J. Parker, Carolyn Peck, Renaud Person, Miriam Philippi, Albert Plueddemann, Christopher Pöhlker, Veronika Pörtge, Ulrich Pöschl, Lawrence Pologne, Michał Posyniak, Marc Prange, Estefanía Quiñones Meléndez, Jule Radtke, Karim Ramage, Jens Reimann, Lionel Renault, Klaus Reus, Ashford Reyes, Joachim Ribbe, Maximilian Ringel, Markus Ritschel, Cesar B. Rocha, Nicolas Rochetin, Johannes Röttenbacher, Callum Rollo, Haley Royer, Pauline Sadoulet, Leo Saffin, Sanola Sandiford, Irina Sandu, Michael Schäfer, Vera Schemann, Imke Schirmacher, Oliver Schlenczek, Jerome Schmidt, Marcel Schröder, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, Andrea Sealy, Christoph J. Senff, Ilya Serikov, Samkeyat Shohan, Elizabeth Siddle, Alexander Smirnov, Florian Späth, Branden Spooner, M. Katharina Stolla, Wojciech Szkółka, Simon P. de Szoeke, Stéphane Tarot, Eleni Tetoni, Elizabeth Thompson, Jim Thomson, Lorenzo Tomassini, Julien Totems, Alma Anna Ubele, Leonie Villiger, Jan von Arx, Thomas Wagner, Andi Walther, Ben Webber, Manfred Wendisch, Shanice Whitehall, Anton Wiltshire, Allison A. Wing, Martin Wirth, Jonathan Wiskandt, Kevin Wolf, Ludwig Worbes, Ethan Wright, Volker Wulfmeyer, Shanea Young, Chidong Zhang, Dongxiao Zhang, Florian Ziemen, Tobias Zinner, and Martin Zöger
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 4067–4119, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4067-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4067-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The EUREC4A field campaign, designed to test hypothesized mechanisms by which clouds respond to warming and benchmark next-generation Earth-system models, is presented. EUREC4A comprised roughly 5 weeks of measurements in the downstream winter trades of the North Atlantic – eastward and southeastward of Barbados. It was the first campaign that attempted to characterize the full range of processes and scales influencing trade wind clouds.
Jack Giddings, Karen J. Heywood, Adrian J. Matthews, Manoj M. Joshi, Benjamin G. M. Webber, Alejandra Sanchez-Franks, Brian A. King, and Puthenveettil N. Vinayachandran
Ocean Sci., 17, 871–890, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-871-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-871-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Little is known about the impact of chlorophyll on SST in the Bay of Bengal (BoB). Solar irradiance measured by an ocean glider and three Argo floats is used to determine the effect of chlorophyll on BoB SST during the 2016 summer monsoon. The Southwest Monsoon Current has high chlorophyll concentrations (∼0.5 mg m−3) and shallow solar penetration depths (∼14 m). Ocean mixed layer model simulations show that SST increases by 0.35°C per month, with the potential to influence monsoon rainfall.
Cited articles
Alford, M. H., Girton, J. B., Voet, G., Carter, G. S., Mickett, J. B., and Klymak, J. M.: Turbulent mixing and hydraulic control of abyssal water in the Samoan Passage, Geophysical Research Letters, 40, 4668–4674, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50684, 2013. a
Asay-Davis, X. S., Cornford, S. L., Durand, G., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Gladstone, R. M., Gudmundsson, G. H., Hattermann, T., Holland, D. M., Holland, D., Holland, P. R., Martin, D. F., Mathiot, P., Pattyn, F., and Seroussi, H.: Experimental design for three interrelated marine ice sheet and ocean model intercomparison projects: MISMIP v. 3 (MISMIP +), ISOMIP v. 2 (ISOMIP +) and MISOMIP v. 1 (MISOMIP1), Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 2471–2497, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-2471-2016, 2016. a, b
Bintanja, R., van Oldenborgh, G. J., Drijfhout, S. S., Wouters, B., and Katsman, C. A.: Important role for ocean warming and increased ice-shelf melt in Antarctic sea-ice expansion, Nature Geoscience, 6, 376–379, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1767, 2013. a
Bronselaer, B., Winton, M., Griffies, S. M., Hurlin, W. J., Rodgers, K. B., Sergienko, O. V., Stouffer, R. J., and Russell, J. L.: Change in future climate due to Antarctic meltwater, Nature, 564, 53–58, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0712-z, 2018. a, b
Davis, P. E. D. and Jenkins, A.: Autosub Long Range beneath Ronne Ice Shelf (2018): hydrographic, velocity and turbulence observations along the Modified Warm Deep Water Inflow, NERC EDS UK Polar Data Centre [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/EB2F66FA-1C64-49AF-B9E8-CE3124CE3C03, 2022. a
Davis, P. E. D. and Nicholls, K. W.: Turbulence beneath Larsen C Ice Shelf, Antarctica (2012), UK Polar Data Centre [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/16EE2665-D0D0-41B9-A046-23B0A7369C61, 2019a. a
Davis, P. E. D. and Nicholls, K. W.: Turbulence Observations Beneath Larsen C Ice Shelf, Antarctica, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 124, 5529–5550, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019jc015164, 2019b. a, b, c, d
Davis, P. E. D., Jenkins, A., Nicholls, K. W., Brennan, P. V., Abrahamsen, E. P., Heywood, K. J., Dutrieux, P., Cho, K., and Kim, T.: Variability in Basal Melting Beneath Pine Island Ice Shelf on Weekly to Monthly Timescales, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 123, 8655–8669, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc014464, 2018. a
Davis, P. E. D., Jenkins, A., Nicholls, K. W., Dutrieux, P., Schröder, M., Janout, M. A., Hellmer, H. H., Templeton, R., and McPhail, S.: Observations of Modified Warm Deep Water Beneath Ronne Ice Shelf, Antarctica, From an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 127, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022jc019103, 2022. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s
Davis, P. E. D., Nicholls, K. W., and Holland, D. M.: Thwaites MELT: Velocity microstructure profiles from the grounding zone region of Thwaites Glacier Eastern Ice Shelf (2020), NERC EDS UK Polar Data Centre [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/2B33895B-5069-4C49-95BD-2624C980498B, 2024. a
Davis, P. E. D., Nicholls, K. W., Holland, D. M., Schmidt, B. E., Washam, P., Castro, B. F., Riverman, K. L., Smith, J. A., Anker, P. G. D., Mullen, A. D., Dichek, D., Clyne, E., and Makinson, K.: Lateral Fluxes Drive Basal Melting Beneath Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf, West Antarctica, Geophysical Research Letters, 52, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024gl111873, 2025. a, b, c, d, e
Dotto, T. S., Hall, R. A., Heywood, K. J., Provost, P., and Platt, W.: Lowered Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (LADCP) data collected in the Amundsen Sea for the TARSAN Project, January – February 2022, NERC EDS British Oceanographic Data Centre NOC [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/18A8BE08-07C6-D76C-E063-7086ABC01604, 2024. a
Erofeeva, S., Greene, C. A., Howard, S. L., Padman, L., and Sutterley, T.: CATS2008_v2023: Circum-Antarctic Tidal Simulation 2008, version 2023, U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.15784/601772, 2024. a, b
Girton, J. B., Christianson, K., Dunlap, J., Dutrieux, P., Gobat, J., Lee, C., and Rainville, L.: Buoyancy-adjusting Profiling Floats for Exploration of Heat Transport, Melt Rates, and Mixing in the Ocean Cavities Under Floating Ice Shelves, in: OCEANS 2019 MTS/IEEE SEATTLE, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.23919/OCEANS40490.2019.8962744, 2019. a, b, c, d, e
Goodman, L., Levine, E. R., and Lueck, R. G.: On Measuring the Terms of the Turbulent Kinetic Energy Budget from an AUV, Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 23, 977–990, https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech1889.1, 2006. a
Gourmelen, N., Goldberg, D. N., Snow, K., Henley, S. F., Bingham, R. G., Kimura, S., Hogg, A. E., Shepherd, A., Mouginot, J., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Ligtenberg, S. R. M., and van de Berg, W. J.: Channelized Melting Drives Thinning Under a Rapidly Melting Antarctic Ice Shelf, Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 9796–9804, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gl074929, 2017. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i
Greene, C. A., Gardner, A. S., Schlegel, N.-J., and Fraser, A. D.: Antarctic calving loss rivals ice-shelf thinning, Nature, 609, 948–953, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05037-w, 2022. a
Gwyther, D. E., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Dinniman, M. S., Roberts, J. L., and Hunter, J. R.: The effect of basal friction on melting and freezing in ice shelf-ocean models, Ocean Modelling, 95, 38–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2015.09.004, 2015. a, b
Haine, T. W. N. and Marshall, J.: Gravitational, Symmetric, and Baroclinic Instability of the Ocean Mixed Layer, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 28, 634–658, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<0634:gsabio>2.0.co;2, 1998. a
Hazel, P.: Numerical studies of the stability of inviscid stratified shear flows, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 51, 39–61, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022112072001065, 1972. a
Hellmer, H. H.: Impact of Antarctic ice shelf basal melting on sea ice and deep ocean properties, Geophysical Research Letters, 31, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004gl019506, 2004. a, b
Howard, L. N.: Note on a paper of John W. Miles, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 10, 509, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022112061000317, 1961. a
Jordan, T. A., Porter, D., Tinto, K., Millan, R., Muto, A., Hogan, K., Larter, R. D., Graham, A. G. C., and Paden, J. D.: New gravity-derived bathymetry for the Thwaites, Crosson, and Dotson ice shelves revealing two ice shelf populations, The Cryosphere, 14, 2869–2882, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2869-2020, 2020. a, b, c
Jourdain, N. C., Mathiot, P., Merino, N., Durand, G., Le Sommer, J., Spence, P., Dutrieux, P., and Madec, G.: Ocean circulation and sea‐ice thinning induced by melting ice shelves in the Amundsen Sea, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 122, 2550–2573, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jc012509, 2017. a
Khazendar, A., Rignot, E., Schroeder, D. M., Seroussi, H., Schodlok, M. P., Scheuchl, B., Mouginot, J., Sutterley, T. C., and Velicogna, I.: Rapid submarine ice melting in the grounding zones of ice shelves in West Antarctica, Nature Communications, 7, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms13243, 2016. a, b, c, d
Kim, T., Yang, H. W., Dutrieux, P., Wåhlin, A. K., Jenkins, A., Kim, Y. G., Ha, H. K., Kim, C., Cho, K., Park, T., Park, J., Lee, S., and Cho, Y.: Interannual Variation of Modified Circumpolar Deep Water in the Dotson-Getz Trough, West Antarctica, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 126, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021jc017491, 2021. a, b, c
Kimura, S., Jenkins, A., Dutrieux, P., Forryan, A., Naveira Garabato, A. C., and Firing, Y.: Ocean mixing beneath Pine Island Glacier ice shelf, West Antarctica: ocean mixing beneath pig, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 121, 8496–8510, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jc012149, 2016. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o
King, B., Stone, M., Zhang, H. P., Gerkema, T., Marder, M., Scott, R. B., and Swinney, H. L.: Buoyancy frequency profiles and internal semidiurnal tide turning depths in the oceans, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 117, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jc007681, 2012. a
Kolås, E. H., Mo-Bjørkelund, T., and Fer, I.: Technical note: Turbulence measurements from a light autonomous underwater vehicle, Ocean Sci., 18, 389–400, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-389-2022, 2022. a
Large, W. G., McWilliams, J. C., and Doney, S. C.: Oceanic vertical mixing: A review and a model with a nonlocal boundary layer parameterization, Reviews of Geophysics, 32, 363–403, https://doi.org/10.1029/94rg01872, 1994. a, b
Lilien, D. A., Joughin, I., Smith, B., and Shean, D. E.: Changes in flow of Crosson and Dotson ice shelves, West Antarctica, in response to elevated melt, The Cryosphere, 12, 1415–1431, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1415-2018, 2018. a, b, c, d
Lueck, R., Fer, I., Bluteau, C., Dengler, M., Holtermann, P., Inoue, R., LeBoyer, A., Nicholson, S.-A., Schulz, K., and Stevens, C.: Best practices recommendations for estimating dissipation rates from shear probes, Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1334327, 2024. a
McDougall, T. J. and Barker, P. M.: Getting started with TEOS-10 and the Gibbs Seawater (GSW) oceanographic toolbox, SCOR/IAPSO WG, 127, 1–28, 2011. a
Miles, J. W.: On the stability of heterogeneous shear flows, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 10, 496, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022112061000305, 1961. a
Milillo, P., Rignot, E., Rizzoli, P., Scheuchl, B., Mouginot, J., Bueso-Bello, J. L., Prats-Iraola, P., and Dini, L.: Rapid glacier retreat rates observed in West Antarctica, Nature Geoscience, 15, 48–53, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-021-00877-z, 2022. a, b, c, d
Morlighem, M., Rignot, E., Binder, T., Blankenship, D., Drews, R., Eagles, G., Eisen, O., Ferraccioli, F., Forsberg, R., Fretwell, P., Goel, V., Greenbaum, J. S., Gudmundsson, H., Guo, J., Helm, V., Hofstede, C., Howat, I., Humbert, A., Jokat, W., Karlsson, N. B., Lee, W. S., Matsuoka, K., Millan, R., Mouginot, J., Paden, J., Pattyn, F., Roberts, J., Rosier, S., Ruppel, A., Seroussi, H., Smith, E. C., Steinhage, D., Sun, B., Broeke, M. R. v. d., Ommen, T. D. v., Wessem, M. v., and Young, D. A.: Deep glacial troughs and stabilizing ridges unveiled beneath the margins of the Antarctic ice sheet, Nature Geoscience, 13, 132–137, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0510-8, 2019. a
Mouginot, J., Rignot, E., and Scheuchl, B.: Sustained increase in ice discharge from the Amundsen Sea Embayment, West Antarctica, from 1973 to 2013, Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 1576–1584, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013gl059069, 2014. a, b, c, d
Muchowski, J., Arneborg, L., Umlauf, L., Holtermann, P., Eisbrenner, E., Humborg, C., Jakobsson, M., and Stranne, C.: Diapycnal Mixing Induced by Rough Small-Scale Bathymetry, Geophysical Research Letters, 50, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023gl103514, 2023. a
Nakayama, Y., Menemenlis, D., Schodlok, M., and Rignot, E.: Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas simulation with optimized ocean, sea ice, and thermodynamic ice shelf model parameters, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 122, 6180–6195, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jc012538, 2017. a
Nasmyth, P. W.: Oceanic turbulence, phdthesis, University of British Columbia, https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0302459, 1970. a
Naveira Garabato, A. C., Forryan, A., Dutrieux, P., Brannigan, L., Biddle, L. C., Heywood, K. J., Jenkins, A., Firing, Y. L., and Kimura, S.: Vigorous lateral export of the meltwater outflow from beneath an Antarctic ice shelf, Nature, 542, 219–222, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20825, 2017. a, b, c, d
NSF/NERC ARTEMIS and ITGC TARSAN: Vertical ocean profiles collected by a Conductivity-Temperature-Depth (CTD) package in the Amundsen Sea, U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.15784/601785, 2024. a
Oakey, N. S.: Determination of the Rate of Dissipation of Turbulent Energy from Simultaneous Temperature and Velocity Shear Microstructure Measurements, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 12, 256–271, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1982)012<0256:dotrod>2.0.co;2, 1982. a
Osborn, T. R.: Vertical Profiling of Velocity Microstructure, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 4, 109–115, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1974)004<0109:vpovm>2.0.co;2, 1974. a
Osborn, T. R.: Estimates of the Local Rate of Vertical Diffusion from Dissipation Measurements, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 10, 83–89, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1980)010<0083:eotlro>2.0.co;2, 1980. a, b
Padman, L., Fricker, H. A., Coleman, R., Howard, S., and Erofeeva, L.: A new tide model for the Antarctic ice shelves and seas, Annals of Glaciology, 34, 247–254, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756402781817752, 2002. a
Paolo, F. S., Fricker, H. A., and Padman, L.: Volume loss from Antarctic ice shelves is accelerating, Science, 348, 327–331, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa0940, 2015. a
Polzin, K., Kunze, E., Hummon, J., and Firing, E.: The finescale response of lowered ADCP velocity profiles, Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 19, 205–224, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2002)019<0205:tfrola>2.0.co;2, 2002. a
Polzin, K. L., Toole, J. M., Ledwell, J. R., and Schmitt, R. W.: Spatial Variability of Turbulent Mixing in the Abyssal Ocean, Science, 276, 93–96, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5309.93, 1997. a
Richardson, G., Wadley, M. R., Heywood, K. J., Stevens, D. P., and Banks, H. T.: Short-term climate response to a freshwater pulse in the Southern Ocean, Geophysical Research Letters, 32, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004gl021586, 2005. a
Richter, M. E., Heywood, K. J., and Hall, R. A.: CTD, microstructure and ADCP data from Autosub Long Range under Dotson Ice Shelf, VMP data from the Dotson Ice Shelf front, (Version V1), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15280917, 2025. a
Rignot, E., Jacobs, S., Mouginot, J., and Scheuchl, B.: Ice-Shelf Melting Around Antarctica, Science, 341, 266–270, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235798, 2013. a, b
Rignot, E., Mouginot, J., Morlighem, M., Seroussi, H., and Scheuchl, B.: Widespread, rapid grounding line retreat of Pine Island, Thwaites, Smith, and Kohler glaciers, West Antarctica, from 1992 to 2011, Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 3502–3509, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014gl060140, 2014. a
Rignot, E., Mouginot, J., Scheuchl, B., van den Broeke, M., van Wessem, M. J., and Morlighem, M.: Four decades of Antarctic Ice Sheet mass balance from 1979–2017, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 1095–1103, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812883116, 2019. a, b, c
Robertson, R.: Tidally induced increases in melting of Amundsen Sea ice shelves, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 118, 3138–3145, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20236, 2013. a, b, c
Scheuchl, B., Mouginot, J., Rignot, E., Morlighem, M., and Khazendar, A.: Grounding line retreat of Pope, Smith, and Kohler Glaciers, West Antarctica, measured with Sentinel-1a radar interferometry data, Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 8572–8579, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl069287, 2016. a
Schodlok, M. P., Menemenlis, D., Rignot, E., and Studinger, M.: Sensitivity of the ice-shelf/ocean system to the sub-ice-shelf cavity shape measured by NASA IceBridge in Pine Island Glacier, West Antarctica, Annals of Glaciology, 53, 156–162, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012aog60a073, 2012. a, b, c
Scott, R. M., Brearley, J. A., Naveira Garabato, A. C., Venables, H. J., and Meredith, M. P.: Rates and Mechanisms of Turbulent Mixing in a Coastal Embayment of the West Antarctic Peninsula, Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 126, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020jc016861, 2021. a, b
Silvano, A., Rintoul, S. R., Peña-Molino, B., Hobbs, W. R., van Wijk, E., Aoki, S., Tamura, T., and Williams, G. D.: Freshening by glacial meltwater enhances melting of ice shelves and reduces formation of Antarctic Bottom Water, Science Advances, 4, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aap9467, 2018. a, b, c
Thurnherr, A. M.: How To Process LADCP Data With the LDEO Software (Version IX.14), https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~ant/LADCP.html (last access: 14 November 2025), 2021. a
Twining, B. S. and Baines, S. B.: The Trace Metal Composition of Marine Phytoplankton, Annual Review of Marine Science, 5, 191–215, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172322, 2013. a
van Manen, M., Aoki, S., Brussaard, C. P., Conway, T. M., Eich, C., Gerringa, L. J., Jung, J., Kim, T.-W., Lee, S., Lee, Y., Reichart, G.-J., Tian, H.-A., Wille, F., and Middag, R.: The role of the Dotson Ice Shelf and Circumpolar Deep Water as driver and source of dissolved and particulate iron and manganese in the Amundsen Sea polynya, Southern Ocean, Marine Chemistry, 246, 104161, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2022.104161, 2022. a, b
Venables, E., Nicholls, K., Wolk, F., Makinson, K., and Anker, P.: Measuring turbulent dissipation rates beneath an Antarctic ice shelf, Marine Technology Society Journal, 48, 18–24, https://doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.48.5.8, 2014. a, b, c
Wåhlin, A., Alley, K. E., Begeman, C., Hegrenæs, Ø., Yuan, X., Graham, A. G. C., Hogan, K., Davis, P. E. D., Dotto, T. S., Eayrs, C., Hall, R. A., Holland, D. M., Kim, T. W., Larter, R. D., Ling, L., Muto, A., Pettit, E. C., Schmidt, B. E., Snow, T., Stedt, F., Washam, P. M., Wahlgren, S., Wild, C., Wellner, J., Zheng, Y., and Heywood, K. J.: Swirls and scoops: Ice base melt revealed by multibeam imagery of an Antarctic ice shelf, Science Advances, 10, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adn9188, 2024a. a, b, c, d, e, f, g
Wåhlin, A., Sjövall, A., Symons, M., Ling, L., Stedt, F., Eayrs, C., and Holland, D.: Data from AUV Ran missions during Nathaniel B. Palmer cruise NBP2202, Swedish National Data Service [data set], https://doi.org/10.5878/JEJ3-KV87, 2024b. a
Wåhlin, A. K., Steiger, N., Darelius, E., Assmann, K. M., Glessmer, M. S., Ha, H. K., Herraiz-Borreguero, L., Heuzé, C., Jenkins, A., Kim, T. W., Mazur, A. K., Sommeria, J., and Viboud, S.: Ice front blocking of ocean heat transport to an Antarctic ice shelf, Nature, 578, 568–571, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2014-5, 2020. a, b
Walker, R. T., Dupont, T. K., Parizek, B. R., and Alley, R. B.: Effects of basal-melting distribution on the retreat of ice-shelf grounding lines, Geophysical Research Letters, 35, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008gl034947, 2008. a
Waterhouse, A. F., MacKinnon, J. A., Nash, J. D., Alford, M. H., Kunze, E., Simmons, H. L., Polzin, K. L., St. Laurent, L. C., Sun, O. M., Pinkel, R., Talley, L. D., Whalen, C. B., Huussen, T. N., Carter, G. S., Fer, I., Waterman, S., Naveira Garabato, A. C., Sanford, T. B., and Lee, C. M.: Global Patterns of Diapycnal Mixing from Measurements of the Turbulent Dissipation Rate, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 44, 1854–1872, https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-13-0104.1, 2014. a, b
Yang, H. W., Kim, T.-W., Dutrieux, P., Wåhlin, A. K., Jenkins, A., Ha, H. K., Kim, C. S., Cho, K.-H., Park, T., Lee, S. H., and Cho, Y.-K.: Seasonal variability of ocean circulation near the Dotson Ice Shelf, Antarctica, Nature Communications, 13, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28751-5, 2022. a, b, c, d, e
Short summary
Warm ocean water causes rapid melting of Antarctic glaciers. The circulation and mixing of warm water in ice shelf cavities is mostly unknown. We observed ocean currents and mixing under Dotson Ice Shelf. Mixing is low, with patches of higher mixing associated with stronger currents and vertical current shear. The levels of turbulent mixing will lead to negligible heat loss during the path of the warm water to the grounding line, leaving plenty of heat available to melt the ice shelf there.
Warm ocean water causes rapid melting of Antarctic glaciers. The circulation and mixing of warm...
