Articles | Volume 20, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-21-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-21-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Technical note
| 
12 Jan 2024
Technical note |
| 12 Jan 2024
| 12 Jan 2024
Technical note: Extending sea level time series for the analysis of extremes with statistical methods and neighbouring station data
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Science (CNDS), Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
Morten Andreas Dahl Larsen
Weather Research Department, Danish Meteorological Institute, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
Martin Drews
Department of Technology, Management and Economics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark
Erik Nilsson
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Science (CNDS), Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
Anna Rutgersson
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Science (CNDS), Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
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Kévin Dubois, Morten Andreas Dahl Larsen, Martin Drews, Erik Nilsson, and Anna Rutgersson
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3245–3265, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3245-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3245-2024, 2024
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Both extreme river discharge and storm surges can interact at the coast and lead to flooding. However, it is difficult to predict flood levels during such compound events because they are rare and complex. Here, we focus on the quantification of uncertainties and investigate the sources of limitations while carrying out such analyses at Halmstad, Sweden. Based on a sensitivity analysis, we emphasize that both the choice of data source and statistical methodology influence the results.
Kévin Dubois, Morten Andreas Dahl Larsen, Martin Drews, Erik Nilsson, and Anna Rutgersson
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3245–3265, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3245-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3245-2024, 2024
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Both extreme river discharge and storm surges can interact at the coast and lead to flooding. However, it is difficult to predict flood levels during such compound events because they are rare and complex. Here, we focus on the quantification of uncertainties and investigate the sources of limitations while carrying out such analyses at Halmstad, Sweden. Based on a sensitivity analysis, we emphasize that both the choice of data source and statistical methodology influence the results.
Kai Schröter, Pia-Johanna Schweizer, Benedikt Gräler, Lydia Cumiskey, Sukaina Bharwani, Janne Parviainen, Chahan Kropf, Viktor Wattin Hakansson, Martin Drews, Tracy Irvine, Clarissa Dondi, Heiko Apel, Jana Löhrlein, Stefan Hochrainer-Stigler, Stefano Bagli, Levente Huszti, Christopher Genillard, Silvia Unguendoli, and Max Steinhausen
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-135, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2024-135, 2024
Revised manuscript under review for NHESS
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With the increasing negative impacts of extreme weather events globally, it's crucial to align efforts to manage disasters with measures to adapt to climate change. We identify challenges in systems and organizations working together. We suggest that collaboration across various fields is essential and propose an approach to improve collaboration, including a framework for better stakeholder engagement and an open-source data system that helps gather and connect important information.
Ferran Lopez-Marti, Mireia Ginesta, Davide Faranda, Anna Rutgersson, Pascal Yiou, Lichuan Wu, and Gabriele Messori
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1711, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1711, 2024
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Explosive Cyclones and Atmospheric Rivers are two main drivers of extreme weather in Europe. In this study, we investigate their joint changes in future climates over the North Atlantic. Our results show that both the concurrence of these events and the intensity of atmospheric rivers increase by the end of the century across different future scenarios. Furthermore, explosive cyclones associated with atmospheric rivers are longer-lasting and deeper than those without atmospheric rivers.
Julika Zinke, Ernst Douglas Nilsson, Piotr Markuszewski, Paul Zieger, Eva Monica Mårtensson, Anna Rutgersson, Erik Nilsson, and Matthew Edward Salter
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 1895–1918, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1895-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1895-2024, 2024
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We conducted two research campaigns in the Baltic Sea, during which we combined laboratory sea spray simulation experiments with flux measurements on a nearby island. To combine these two methods, we scaled the laboratory measurements to the flux measurements using three different approaches. As a result, we derived a parameterization that is dependent on wind speed and wave state for particles with diameters 0.015–10 μm. This parameterization is applicable to low-salinity waters.
Elin Andrée, Jian Su, Morten Andreas Dahl Larsen, Martin Drews, Martin Stendel, and Kristine Skovgaard Madsen
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1817–1834, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1817-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1817-2023, 2023
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When natural processes interact, they may compound each other. The combined effect can amplify extreme sea levels, such as when a storm occurs at a time when the water level is already higher than usual. We used numerical modelling of a record-breaking storm surge in 1872 to show that other prior sea-level conditions could have further worsened the outcome. Our research highlights the need to consider the physical context of extreme sea levels in measures to reduce coastal flood risk.
Lucía Gutiérrez-Loza, Erik Nilsson, Marcus B. Wallin, Erik Sahlée, and Anna Rutgersson
Biogeosciences, 19, 5645–5665, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5645-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5645-2022, 2022
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The exchange of CO2 between the ocean and the atmosphere is an essential aspect of the global carbon cycle and is highly relevant for the Earth's climate. In this study, we used 9 years of in situ measurements to evaluate the temporal variability in the air–sea CO2 fluxes in the Baltic Sea. Furthermore, using this long record, we assessed the effect of atmospheric and water-side mechanisms controlling the efficiency of the air–sea CO2 exchange under different wind-speed conditions.
Christoffer Hallgren, Johan Arnqvist, Erik Nilsson, Stefan Ivanell, Metodija Shapkalijevski, August Thomasson, Heidi Pettersson, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1183–1207, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, 2022
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Non-idealized wind profiles with negative shear in part of the profile (e.g., low-level jets) frequently occur in coastal environments and are important to take into consideration for offshore wind power. Using observations from a coastal site in the Baltic Sea, we analyze in which meteorological and sea state conditions these profiles occur and study how they alter the turbulence structure of the boundary layer compared to idealized profiles.
H. E. Markus Meier, Madline Kniebusch, Christian Dieterich, Matthias Gröger, Eduardo Zorita, Ragnar Elmgren, Kai Myrberg, Markus P. Ahola, Alena Bartosova, Erik Bonsdorff, Florian Börgel, Rene Capell, Ida Carlén, Thomas Carlund, Jacob Carstensen, Ole B. Christensen, Volker Dierschke, Claudia Frauen, Morten Frederiksen, Elie Gaget, Anders Galatius, Jari J. Haapala, Antti Halkka, Gustaf Hugelius, Birgit Hünicke, Jaak Jaagus, Mart Jüssi, Jukka Käyhkö, Nina Kirchner, Erik Kjellström, Karol Kulinski, Andreas Lehmann, Göran Lindström, Wilhelm May, Paul A. Miller, Volker Mohrholz, Bärbel Müller-Karulis, Diego Pavón-Jordán, Markus Quante, Marcus Reckermann, Anna Rutgersson, Oleg P. Savchuk, Martin Stendel, Laura Tuomi, Markku Viitasalo, Ralf Weisse, and Wenyan Zhang
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 457–593, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, 2022
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Based on the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports of this thematic issue in Earth System Dynamics and recent peer-reviewed literature, current knowledge about the effects of global warming on past and future changes in the climate of the Baltic Sea region is summarised and assessed. The study is an update of the Second Assessment of Climate Change (BACC II) published in 2015 and focuses on the atmosphere, land, cryosphere, ocean, sediments, and the terrestrial and marine biosphere.
Anna Rutgersson, Erik Kjellström, Jari Haapala, Martin Stendel, Irina Danilovich, Martin Drews, Kirsti Jylhä, Pentti Kujala, Xiaoli Guo Larsén, Kirsten Halsnæs, Ilari Lehtonen, Anna Luomaranta, Erik Nilsson, Taru Olsson, Jani Särkkä, Laura Tuomi, and Norbert Wasmund
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 251–301, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-251-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-251-2022, 2022
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A natural hazard is a naturally occurring extreme event with a negative effect on people, society, or the environment; major events in the study area include wind storms, extreme waves, high and low sea level, ice ridging, heavy precipitation, sea-effect snowfall, river floods, heat waves, ice seasons, and drought. In the future, an increase in sea level, extreme precipitation, heat waves, and phytoplankton blooms is expected, and a decrease in cold spells and severe ice winters is anticipated.
Matthias Gröger, Christian Dieterich, Jari Haapala, Ha Thi Minh Ho-Hagemann, Stefan Hagemann, Jaromir Jakacki, Wilhelm May, H. E. Markus Meier, Paul A. Miller, Anna Rutgersson, and Lichuan Wu
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 939–973, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-939-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-939-2021, 2021
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Regional climate studies are typically pursued by single Earth system component models (e.g., ocean models and atmosphere models). These models are driven by prescribed data which hamper the simulation of feedbacks between Earth system components. To overcome this, models were developed that interactively couple model components and allow an adequate simulation of Earth system interactions important for climate. This article reviews recent developments of such models for the Baltic Sea region.
Jens Daniel Müller, Bernd Schneider, Ulf Gräwe, Peer Fietzek, Marcus Bo Wallin, Anna Rutgersson, Norbert Wasmund, Siegfried Krüger, and Gregor Rehder
Biogeosciences, 18, 4889–4917, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4889-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4889-2021, 2021
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Based on profiling pCO2 measurements from a field campaign, we quantify the biomass production of a cyanobacteria bloom in the Baltic Sea, the export of which would foster deep water deoxygenation. We further demonstrate how this biomass production can be accurately reconstructed from long-term surface measurements made on cargo vessels in combination with modelled temperature profiles. This approach enables a better understanding of a severe concern for the Baltic’s good environmental status.
Taru Olsson, Anna Luomaranta, Kirsti Jylhä, Julia Jeworrek, Tuuli Perttula, Christian Dieterich, Lichuan Wu, Anna Rutgersson, and Antti Mäkelä
Adv. Sci. Res., 17, 87–104, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-17-87-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-17-87-2020, 2020
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Statistics of the frequency and intensity of snow bands affecting the Finnish coast during years 2000–2010 was conducted. A set of criteria for meteorological variables favoring the formation of the snow bands were applied to regional climate model (RCA4) data. We found on average three days per year with favorable conditions for coastal sea-effect snowfall. The heaviest convective snowfall events were detected most frequently over the southern coastline.
Lea Skraep Svenningsen, Lisa Bay, Mads Lykke Doemgaard, Kirsten Halsnaes, Per Skougaard Kaspersen, and Morten Dahl Larsen
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2020-30, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2020-30, 2020
Publication in NHESS not foreseen
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This study provides rigorous and detailed econometric estimates of damage costs for residential buildings resulting from a storm surge in Denmark, December 2013. Our results indicate that the isolated effect of inundation depth on damage costs is highly sensitive to the inclusion of other explanatory variables. Our findings highlight the importance of controlling for spatial effects, such as the level of emergency services and socio-economic conditions.
Jesús Yus-Díez, Mireia Udina, Maria Rosa Soler, Marie Lothon, Erik Nilsson, Joan Bech, and Jielun Sun
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 9495–9514, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9495-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9495-2019, 2019
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This study helps improve the understanding of the turbulence description and the interactions occurring in the lower part of the boundary layer. It is carried out at an orographically influenced site close to the Pyrenees to explore the hockey-stick transition (HOST) theory. HOST is seen to be strongly dependent on both the meteorological conditions and the orographic features. Examples of intermittent turbulence events that lead to transitions between the turbulence regimes are also identified.
Winfried Hoke, Tina Swierczynski, Peter Braesicke, Karin Lochte, Len Shaffrey, Martin Drews, Hilppa Gregow, Ralf Ludwig, Jan Even Øie Nilsen, Elisa Palazzi, Gianmaria Sannino, Lars Henrik Smedsrud, and ECRA network
Adv. Geosci., 46, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-46-1-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-46-1-2019, 2019
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The European Climate Research Alliance is a bottom-up association of European research institutions helping to facilitate the development of climate change research, combining the capacities of national research institutions and inducing closer ties between existing national research initiatives, projects and infrastructures. This article briefly introduces the network's structure and organisation, as well as project management issues and prospects.
Gaëlle Parard, Anna Rutgersson, Sindu Raj Parampil, and Anastase Alexandre Charantonis
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 1093–1106, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-1093-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-1093-2017, 2017
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Coastal environments and shelf sea represent 7.6 % of the total oceanic surface area. They are, however, biogeochemically more dynamic and probably more vulnerable to climate change than the open ocean. Whatever the responses of the open ocean to climate change, they will propagate to the coastal ocean. We used the self-organizing multiple linear output (SOMLO) method to estimate the ocean surface pCO2 in the Baltic Sea from remotely sensed measurements and we estimated the air–sea CO2 flux.
Björn Claremar, Karin Haglund, and Anna Rutgersson
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 901–919, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-901-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-901-2017, 2017
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Shipping is the most cost-effective option for the global transport of goods, and over 90 % of world trade is carried by sea. The shipping sector, however, contributes to emissions of pollutants into the air and water. Estimates of deposition and near-surface concentrations of sulfur, nitrogen, and particulate matter originating from shipping in the Baltic Sea region have been developed for present conditions concerning traffic intensity and fuel as well as for future scenarios until 2050.
Per Skougaard Kaspersen, Nanna Høegh Ravn, Karsten Arnbjerg-Nielsen, Henrik Madsen, and Martin Drews
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 4131–4147, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4131-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-4131-2017, 2017
Julia Jeworrek, Lichuan Wu, Christian Dieterich, and Anna Rutgersson
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 163–175, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-163-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-163-2017, 2017
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Convective snow bands develop in response to a cold air outbreak from the continent over an open water surface. In the Baltic Sea region these cause intense snowfall and can cause serious problems for traffic, infrastructure and other important establishments of society. The conditions for these events to occur were characterized and the potential of using a regional modelling system was evaluated. The modelling system was used to develop statistics of these events to occur in time and space.
Fleur Couvreux, Eric Bazile, Guylaine Canut, Yann Seity, Marie Lothon, Fabienne Lohou, Françoise Guichard, and Erik Nilsson
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 8983–9002, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8983-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8983-2016, 2016
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This study evaluates the ability of operational models to predict the boundary-layer turbulent processes and mesoscale variability observed during the Boundary Layer Late-Afternoon and Sunset Turbulence field campaign. The models succeed in reproducing the variability from one day to another in terms of cloud cover, temperature and boundary-layer depth. However, they exhibit some systematic biases. The high-resolution model reproduces the vertical structures better.
Erik Nilsson, Fabienne Lohou, Marie Lothon, Eric Pardyjak, Larry Mahrt, and Clara Darbieu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 8849–8872, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8849-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8849-2016, 2016
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The evolution of near-surface turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) and its budget in the afternoon transition has been studied based on field measurements. The study shows that TKE transport is an important budget term that needs to be taken into account in modeling of TKE. A non-local parametrization of dissipation using a TKE–length scale model which takes into account of boundary layer depth also gave improved results compared to a local parametrization.
Erik Nilsson, Marie Lothon, Fabienne Lohou, Eric Pardyjak, Oscar Hartogensis, and Clara Darbieu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 8873–8898, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8873-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8873-2016, 2016
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A new simple model for turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) and its budget is presented for the sheared convective atmospheric boundary layer. It is used to study effects of buoyancy and shear on TKE evolution during the afternoon transition, especially near the surface. We also find a region of weak turbulence during unstable afternoon conditions below the inversion top, which we refer to as a "pre-residual layer".
Tito Maldonado, Anna Rutgersson, Eric Alfaro, Jorge Amador, and Björn Claremar
Adv. Geosci., 42, 35–50, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-42-35-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-42-35-2016, 2016
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We studied the relationship between the midsummer drought (MSD) in Central America, and the sea surface temperatures (SST) of the neighbouring ocean in interannual scales. Besides, the motivation of this study is also to provide a systematic method for forecasting the MSD period. We found that the intensity and the magnitude of the MSD shown a strong association with the contrast in the surface temperatures between the eastern tropical Pacific, and the tropical north Atlantic.
G. Parard, A. A. Charantonis, and A. Rutgerson
Biogeosciences, 12, 3369–3384, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-3369-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-3369-2015, 2015
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In this paper, we used combines two existing methods (i.e. self-organizing maps and multiple linear regression) to estimate the ocean surface partial pressure of CO2 in the Baltic Sea from the remotely sensed sea surface temperature, chlorophyll, coloured dissolved organic matter, net primary production, and
mixed-layer depth. The outputs of this research have a horizontal resolution of 4km and cover the 1998–2011 period. These outputs give a monthly map of the Baltic Sea.
M. A. D. Larsen, J. C. Refsgaard, M. Drews, M. B. Butts, K. H. Jensen, J. H. Christensen, and O. B. Christensen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 4733–4749, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-4733-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-4733-2014, 2014
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The paper presents results from a novel dynamical coupling between a hydrology model and a regional climate model developed to include a wider range of processes, land-surface/atmosphere interaction and finer spatio-temporal scales. The coupled performance was largely dependent on the data exchange frequency between the two model components, and longer-term precipitation was somewhat improved by the coupled system whereas the short-term dynamics for a range of variables was less accurate.
E. Podgrajsek, E. Sahlée, D. Bastviken, J. Holst, A. Lindroth, L. Tranvik, and A. Rutgersson
Biogeosciences, 11, 4225–4233, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-4225-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-4225-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Approach: Numerical Models | Properties and processes: Sea level, tides, tsunamis and surges
Assessing storm surge model performance: what error indicators can measure the model's skill?
The characteristics of tides and their effects on the general circulation of the Mediterranean Sea
Effects of sea level rise and tidal flat growth on tidal dynamics and geometry of the Elbe estuary
Uncertainties and discrepancies in the representation of recent storm surges in a non-tidal semi-enclosed basin: a hindcast ensemble for the Baltic Sea
Observations and modeling of tidally generated high-frequency velocity fluctuations downstream of a channel constriction
Rodrigo Campos-Caba, Jacopo Alessandri, Paula Camus, Andrea Mazzino, Francesco Ferrari, Ivan Federico, Michalis Vousdoukas, Massimo Tondello, and Lorenzo Mentaschi
Ocean Sci., 20, 1513–1526, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1513-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1513-2024, 2024
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Here we show the development of high-resolution simulations of storm surge in the northern Adriatic Sea employing different atmospheric forcing data and physical configurations. Traditional metrics favor a simulation forced by a coarser database and employing a less sophisticated setup. Closer examination allows us to identify a baroclinic model forced by a high-resolution dataset as being better able to capture the variability and peak values of the storm surge.
Bethany McDonagh, Emanuela Clementi, Anna Chiara Goglio, and Nadia Pinardi
Ocean Sci., 20, 1051–1066, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1051-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1051-2024, 2024
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Tides in the Mediterranean Sea are typically of low amplitude, but twin experiments with and without tides demonstrate that tides affect the circulation directly at scales away from those of the tides. Analysis of the energy changes due to tides shows that they enhance existing oscillations, and internal tides interact with other internal waves. Tides also increase the mixed layer depth and enhance deep water formation in key regions. Internal tides are widespread in the Mediterranean Sea.
Tara F. Mahavadi, Rita Seiffert, Jessica Kelln, and Peter Fröhle
Ocean Sci., 20, 369–388, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-369-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-369-2024, 2024
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To analyse the influence of potential future mean sea level rise (SLR) and tidal flat elevation scenarios on the tidal dynamics in the Elbe estuary, we used a highly resolved hydrodynamic numerical model. The results show increasing tidal range in the Elbe estuary due to SLR alone. In combination with different tidal flat growth scenarios, they reveal strongly varying changes in tidal range. We discuss how changes in estuarine geometry can provide an explanation for the changes in tidal range.
Marvin Lorenz and Ulf Gräwe
Ocean Sci., 19, 1753–1771, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1753-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1753-2023, 2023
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We study the variability of extreme sea levels in a 13 member hindcast ensemble for the Baltic Sea. The ensemble mean shows good agreement with observations regarding return levels and trends. However, we find great variability and uncertainty within the ensemble. We argue that the variability of storms in the atmospheric data directly translates into the variability of the return levels. These results highlight the need for large regional ensembles to minimise uncertainties.
Håvard Espenes, Pål Erik Isachsen, and Ole Anders Nøst
Ocean Sci., 19, 1633–1648, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1633-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1633-2023, 2023
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We show that tidally generated eddies generated near the constriction of a channel can drive a strong and fluctuating flow field far downstream of the channel constriction itself. The velocity signal has been observed in other studies, but this is the first study linking it to a physical process. Eddies such as those we found are generated because of complex coastal geometry, suggesting that, for example, land-reclamation projects in channels may enhance current shear over a large area.
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Short summary
Coastal floods occur due to extreme sea levels (ESLs) which are difficult to predict because of their rarity. Long records of accurate sea levels at the local scale increase ESL predictability. Here, we apply a machine learning technique to extend sea level observation data in the past based on a neighbouring tide gauge. We compared the results with a linear model. We conclude that both models give reasonable results with a better accuracy towards the extremes for the machine learning model.
Coastal floods occur due to extreme sea levels (ESLs) which are difficult to predict because of...
