Articles | Volume 22, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-1651-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-1651-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
28 May 2026
Review article |
| 28 May 2026
| 28 May 2026
Ocean salinity across space-time scales: from water cycle indicator to dynamical driver
Physical Oceanographic Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 2543, USA
Related authors
Chao Liu, Xinfeng Liang, and Lisan Yu
Ocean Sci., 21, 2069–2083, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2069-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2069-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated what drives long-term changes in the Mediterranean Sea's salt and water balance. We found that shifts in freshwater input from rainfall and evaporation, along with water exchange through the Strait of Gibraltar, control these variations. Our results show that changes in freshwater fluxes, rather than water exchange, have a stronger influence on long-term trends. Understanding these processes helps predict how the Mediterranean might respond to future climate change.
Chao Liu and Lisan Yu
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 4159–4184, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-4159-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-4159-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
A daily dataset for ocean-surface stress is synthesized for both ice-covered and ice-free Arctic and Antarctic areas. It is based on satellite data on ocean winds, ice movement, and sea surface height. Sensitivity analyses address uncertainties, including variations in sea level products and ice–water drag. The dataset's accuracy is validated against in situ measurements, showing moderate to good agreement on monthly and longer timescales.
Helen E. Phillips, Amit Tandon, Ryo Furue, Raleigh Hood, Caroline C. Ummenhofer, Jessica A. Benthuysen, Viviane Menezes, Shijian Hu, Ben Webber, Alejandra Sanchez-Franks, Deepak Cherian, Emily Shroyer, Ming Feng, Hemantha Wijesekera, Abhisek Chatterjee, Lisan Yu, Juliet Hermes, Raghu Murtugudde, Tomoki Tozuka, Danielle Su, Arvind Singh, Luca Centurioni, Satya Prakash, and Jerry Wiggert
Ocean Sci., 17, 1677–1751, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1677-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1677-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Over the past decade, understanding of the Indian Ocean has progressed through new observations and advances in theory and models of the oceanic and atmospheric circulation. This review brings together new understanding of the ocean–atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean, describing Indian Ocean circulation patterns, air–sea interactions, climate variability, and the critical role of the Indian Ocean as a clearing house for anthropogenic heat.
Chao Liu, Xinfeng Liang, and Lisan Yu
Ocean Sci., 21, 2069–2083, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2069-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2069-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated what drives long-term changes in the Mediterranean Sea's salt and water balance. We found that shifts in freshwater input from rainfall and evaporation, along with water exchange through the Strait of Gibraltar, control these variations. Our results show that changes in freshwater fluxes, rather than water exchange, have a stronger influence on long-term trends. Understanding these processes helps predict how the Mediterranean might respond to future climate change.
Chao Liu and Lisan Yu
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 4159–4184, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-4159-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-4159-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
A daily dataset for ocean-surface stress is synthesized for both ice-covered and ice-free Arctic and Antarctic areas. It is based on satellite data on ocean winds, ice movement, and sea surface height. Sensitivity analyses address uncertainties, including variations in sea level products and ice–water drag. The dataset's accuracy is validated against in situ measurements, showing moderate to good agreement on monthly and longer timescales.
Helen E. Phillips, Amit Tandon, Ryo Furue, Raleigh Hood, Caroline C. Ummenhofer, Jessica A. Benthuysen, Viviane Menezes, Shijian Hu, Ben Webber, Alejandra Sanchez-Franks, Deepak Cherian, Emily Shroyer, Ming Feng, Hemantha Wijesekera, Abhisek Chatterjee, Lisan Yu, Juliet Hermes, Raghu Murtugudde, Tomoki Tozuka, Danielle Su, Arvind Singh, Luca Centurioni, Satya Prakash, and Jerry Wiggert
Ocean Sci., 17, 1677–1751, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1677-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1677-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Over the past decade, understanding of the Indian Ocean has progressed through new observations and advances in theory and models of the oceanic and atmospheric circulation. This review brings together new understanding of the ocean–atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean, describing Indian Ocean circulation patterns, air–sea interactions, climate variability, and the critical role of the Indian Ocean as a clearing house for anthropogenic heat.
Cited articles
Abernathey, R. P. and Marshall, J.: Global surface eddy diffusivities derived from satellite altimetry, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 118, 901–916, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20066, 2013.
Anderson, D. L. T. and Gill, A. E.: Spin-up of a stratified ocean, with applications to upwelling, Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts, 22, 583–596, https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-7471(75)90046-7, 1975.
Aubone, N., Palma, E. D., and Piola, A. R.: The surface salinity maximum of the South Atlantic, Progr. Oceanogr., 191, 102499, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2020.102499, 2021.
Balaguru, K., Foltz, G. R., Leung, L. R., Kaplan, J., Xu, W., Reul, N., and Chapron, B.: Pronounced Impact of Salinity on Rapidly Intensifying Tropical Cyclones, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 101, E1497–E1511, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-19-0303.1, 2020.
Balwada, D., Smith, K. S., and Abernathey, R.: Submesoscale vertical velocities enhance tracer subduction in an idealized Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 9790–9802, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL079244, 2018.
Barreiro, M., Fedorov, A., Pacanowski, R., and Philander, S. G.: Abrupt climate changes: How freshening of the northern Atlantic affects the thermohaline and wind-driven oceanic circulations, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 36, 33–58, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.36.090507.143219, 2008.
Baumgartner, A. and Reichel, E.: The World Water Balance, Elsevier, New York, 179 pp., ISBN 978-0444998583, 1975.
Bindoff, N. L. and McDougall, T. J.: Diagnosing Climate Change and Ocean Ventilation Using Hydrographic Data, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 24, 1137–1152, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1994)024<1137:DCCAOV>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Bingham, F. M., Howden, S. D., and Koblinsky, C. J.: Sea surface salinity measurements in the historical database, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 8019, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JC000767, 2002.
Bingham, F. M., Busecke, J. J. M., and Gordon, A. L.: Variability of the South Pacific subtropical surface salinity maximum, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 6050–6066, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014598, 2019.
Boccaletti, G., Ferrari, R., and Fox-Kemper, B.: Mixed layer instabilities and restratification, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 37, 2228–2250, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO3101.1, 2007.
Boutin, J., Vergely, J.-L., Marchand, S., D'Amico, F., Hasson, A., Kolodziejczyk, N., Reul, N., Reverdin, G., and Vialard, J.: New SMOS Sea Surface Salinity with reduced systematic errors and improved variability, Remote Sens. Environ., 214, 115–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.05.022, 2018.
Boutin, J., Reul, N., Koehler, J., Martin, A., Catany, R., Guimbard, S., Rouffi, F., Vergely, J.-L., Arias, M., Chakroun, M., Corato, G., Estella-Perez, V., Hasson, A., Josey, S., Khvorostyanov, D., Kolodziejczyk, N., Mignot, J., Olivier, L., Reverdin, G., Stammer, D., Supply, A., Thouvenin-Masson, C., Turiel, A., Vialard, J., Cipollini, P., Donlon, C., Sabia, R., and Mecklenburg, S.: Satellite-based sea surface salinity designed for ocean and climate studies, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 126, e2021JC017676, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC017676, 2021.
Boyer, T. P., Levitus, S., Antonov, J. I., Locarnini, R. A., and Garcia, H. E.: Linear trends in salinity for the world ocean, 1955–1998, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L01604, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021791, 2005.
Caesar, L., Rahmstorf, S., Robinson, A., Feulner, G., and Saba, V.: Observed fingerprint of a weakening Atlantic Ocean overturning circulation, Nature, 556, 191–196, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0006-5, 2018.
Callies, J. and Ferrari, R.: Interpreting energy and tracer spectra of upper-ocean turbulence in the submesoscale range (1–200 km). J. Phys. Oceanogr., 43, 2456–2474, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-13-063.1, 2013.
Camara, I., Kolodziejczyk, N., Mignot, J., Lazar, A., and Gaye, A. T.: On the seasonal variations of salinity of the tropical Atlantic mixed layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120, 4441–4462, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC010865, 2015.
Cessi, P. and Otheguy, P.: Oceanic Teleconnections: Remote Response to Decadal Wind Forcing, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 33, 1604–1617, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033<1604:OTRRTD>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Cheng, L., Trenberth, K., Gruber, N., Abraham, J., Fasullo, J., Li, G., Mann, M., Zhao, X., and Zhu, J.: Improved estimates of changes in upper ocean salinity and the hydrological cycle, J. Climate, 33, 10357–10381, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0366.1, 2020.
Coadou-Chaventon, S., Speich, S., Zhang, D., Rocha, C. B., and Swart, S.: Oceanic fronts driven by the Amazon freshwater plume and their thermohaline compensation at the submesoscale, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 129, e2024JC021326, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JC021326, 2024.
Colliander, A., Crow, W., Entekhabi, D., Fournier, S., Harper, J., Holmes, T., Kimball, J., Lee, T., Maksym, T., Quiring, S., Roy, A., Akins, A., Bayler, E., Bindlish, R., Bingham, F., Belair, S., Dirmeyer, P., Drusch, M., Du, J., Ebtehaj, A., Farahani, A., Feldman, A., Ford, T., Hornbuckle, B., Houser, J., Johnson, J., Kaleschke, L., Kim, H., Konings, A., Kumar, S., Long, D., Macelloni, G., Misra, S., Miller, J., Piles, M., Rasmussen, K., Rodriguez-Fernandez, N., Roundy, J., Santanello, J., Schanze, J., Siqueira, P., Vandemark, D., Wigneron, J.-P., Xu, X., and Yu, L.: Science of 10-km Resolution L-band Radiometry: Workshop Report, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA, https://doi.org/10.48577/jpl.LY2KYW, 2024.
Curry, R., Dickson, B., and Yashayaev, I.: A change in the freshwater balance of the Atlantic Ocean over the past four decades, Nature, 426, 826–829, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02206, 2003.
de Boyer Montégut, C., Madec, G., Fischer, A. S., Lazar, A., and Iudicone, D.: Mixed layer depth over the global ocean: An examination of profile data and a profile-based climatology, J. Geophys. Res., 109, C12003, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002378, 2004.
Delcroix, T. and Hénin, C.: Seasonal and interannual variations of sea surface salinity in the tropical Pacific Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 22135–22150, https://doi.org/10.1029/91JC02124, 1991.
Dickson, R. R., Meincke, J., Malmberg, S. A., and Lee, A. J.: The “great salinity anomaly” in the Northern North Atlantic 1968–1982, Prog. Oceanogr., 20, 103–151, https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6611(88)90049-3, 1988.
Dohan, K. and Davis, R. E.: Mixing in the transition layer during two storm events, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 41, 42–66, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JPO4253.1, 2011.
Dong, S., Baringer, M. O., Goni, G. J., Meinen, C. S., and Garzoli, S. L.: Seasonal variations in the South Atlantic meridional overturning circulation from observations and numerical models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 4611–4618, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL060428, 2014.
Douville, H. and Cheng, L.: Asymmetric sea surface salinity response to global warming: “Fresh gets fresher but salty hesitates”, Geophys. Res. Lett., 51, e2023GL107944, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL107944, 2024.
Drushka, K., Asher, W. E., Ward, B., and Walesby, K.: Understanding the formation and evolution of rain-formed fresh lenses at the ocean surface, J. Geophys. Res., 121, 2673–2689, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC011527, 2016.
Drushka, K., Asher, W. E., Jessup, A. T., Thompson, E. J., Iyer, S., and Clark, D.: Capturing fresh layers with the surface salinity profiler, Oceanography, 32, 76–85, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2019.215, 2019.
Du Plessis, M. D., Swart, S., Biddle, L. C., Giddy, I. S., Monteiro, P. M. S., Reason, C. J. C., Thompson, A. F., and Nicholson, S.-A.: The daily-resolved Southern Ocean mixed layer: Regional contrasts assessed using glider observations, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 127, e2021JC017760, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC017760, 2022.
Durack, P. J. and Wijffels, S. E.: Fifty-year trends in global ocean salinities and their relationship to broad-scale warming, J. Climate, 23, 4342–4362, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3377.1, 2010.
Durack, P. J., Wijffels, S. E., and Matear, R. J.: Ocean salinities reveal strong global water cycle intensification during 1950 to 2000, Science, 336, 455–458, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1212222, 2012.
Entekhabi, D., Njoku, E. G., O'Neill, P. E., Kellogg, K. H., Crow, W. T., Edelstein, W. N., Entin, J. K., Goodman, S. D., Jackson, T. J., Johnson, J., Kimball, J., Piepmeier, J. R., Koster, R. D., Martin, N., McDonald, K. C., Moghaddam, M., Moran, S., Reichle, R., Shi, J. C., Spencer, M. W., Thurman, S. W., Tsang, L., and Van Zyl, J.: The Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission, Proc. IEEE, 98, 704–716, https://doi.org/10.1109/jproc.2010.2043918, 2010.
Fernandez, A., Lapen, T. J., Andreasen, R., Swart, P. K., White, C. D., and Rosenheim, B. E.: Ventilation time scales of the North Atlantic subtropical cell revealed by coral radiocarbon from the Cape Verde Islands, Paleoceanography, 30, 938–948, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015PA002790, 2015.
Fine, R. A., Peacock, S., Maltrud, M. E., and Bryan, F. O.: A new look at ocean ventilation time scales and their uncertainties, J. Geophys. Res., 122, 3771–3798, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012529, 2017.
Fournier, S., Lee, T., and Gierach, M. M.: Seasonal and interannual variations of sea surface salinity associated with the Mississippi River plume observed by SMOS and Aquarius, Remote Sens. Environ., 180, 431–439, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.02.050, 2016.
Fournier, S., Vialard, J., Lengaigne, M., Lee, T., Gierach, M. M., and Chaitanya, A. V. S.: Modulation of the Ganges-Brahmaputra river plume by the Indian Ocean dipole and eddies inferred from satellite observations, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 9591–9604, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013333, 2017.
Fournier, S., Reager, J. T., Chandanpurkar, H. A., Pascolini-Campbell, M., and Jarugula, S.: The salinity of coastal waters as a bellwether for global water cycle changes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL106684, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL106684, 2023.
Fox-Kemper, B., Ferrari, R., and Hallberg, R.: Parameterization of Mixed Layer Eddies. Part I: Theory and Diagnosis, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 38, 1145–1165, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JPO3792.1, 2008.
Friedman, A. R., Reverdin, G., Khodri, M., and Gastineau, G.: A new record of Atlantic sea surface salinity from 1896 to 2013 reveals the signatures of climate variability and long-term trends, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 1866–1876, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL072582, 2017.
Good, S. A., Martin, M. J., and Rayner, N. A.: EN4: Quality controlled ocean temperature and salinity profiles and monthly objective analyses with uncertainty estimates, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 118, 6704–6716, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009067, 2013.
Gordon, A. L. and Giulivi, C. F.: Sea surface salinity trends over fifty years within the subtropical North Atlantic, Oceanography, 21, 20–29, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2008.64, 2008.
Gordon, A. L., Giulivi, C. F., Busecke, J., and Bingham, F. M.: Differences among subtropical surface salinity patterns, Oceanography, 28, 32–39, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2015.02, 2015.
Gould, W. J. and Cunningham, S. A.: Global-scale patterns of observed sea surface salinity intensification since the 1870s, Commun. Earth Environ., 2, 76, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00161-3, 2021.
Grodsky, S. A., Reul, N., Lagerloef, G., Reverdin, G., Carton, J. A., Chapron, B., Quilfen, Y., Kudryavtsev, V. N., and Kao, H.-Y.: Haline hurricane wake in the Amazon/Orinoco plume: AQUARIUS/SACD and SMOS observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L20603, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL053335, 2012.
Grodsky, S. A., Reverdin, G., Carton, J. A., and Coles, V. J.: Year-to-year salinity changes in the Amazon plume: Contrasting 2011 and 2012 Aquarius/SACD and SMOS satellite data, Remote Sens. Environ., 140, 14–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.08.033, 2014.
Gu, D. and Philander, S. G. H.: Interdecadal climate fluctuations that depend on exchanges between the tropics and extratropics, Science, 275, 805–807, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5301.805, 1997.
Hackert, E., Kovach, R. M., Molod, A., Vernieres, G., Borovikov, A., Marshak, J., and Chang, Y.: Satellite sea surface salinity observations impact on El Niño/Southern Oscillation predictions: Case studies from the NASA GEOS seasonal forecast system, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 125, e2019JC015788, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015788, 2020.
Haine, T. W. N., Siddiqui, A. H., and Jiang, W.: Arctic freshwater impact on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: status and prospects, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 381, 20220185, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2022.0185, 2023.
Hanawa, K. and Talley, L. D.: Mode waters, in: Ocean circulation and climate: Observing and modelling the global ocean, international geophysics series, Vol. 77, edited by: Siedler, G., Church, J., and Gould, J., Academic Press, London, 373–386, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(01)80129-7, 2001.
Hasson, A., Delcroix, T., Boutin, J., Dussin, R., and Ballabrera-Poy, J.: Analyzing the 2010–2011 La Niña signature in the tropical Pacific sea surface salinity using in situ data, SMOS observations, and a numerical simulation, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119, 3855–3867, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009388, 2014.
Hasson, A., Puy, M., Boutin, J., Guilyardi, E., and Morrow, R.: Northward pathway across the tropical North Pacific Ocean revealed by surface salinity: How do El Niño anomalies reach Hawaii?, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 123, 2697–2715, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013423, 2018.
Hausmann, U., Czaja, A., and Marshall, J.: Mechanisms controlling the SST air-sea heat flux feedback and its dependence on spatial scale, Clim. Dynam., 48, 1297–1307, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3142-3, 2017.
Held, I. and Soden, B.: Robust responses of the hydrological cycle to global warming, J. Climate, 19, 5686–5699, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3990.1, 2006.
Hellweger, F. L. and Gordon, A. L.: Tracing Amazon River water into the Caribbean Sea, J. Mar. Res., 60, 537–549, https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/2443 (last access: 24 May 2026), 2002.
Helm, K. P., Bindoff, N. L., and Church, J. A.: Changes in the global hydrological-cycle inferred from ocean salinity, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L18701, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044222, 2010.
Hogg, N. G. and Johns, W. E.: Western boundary currents, Rev. Geophys., 33, 1311–1334, https://doi.org/10.1029/95RG00491, 1995.
Holliday, N. P., Bersch, M., Berx, B., Chafik, L., Cunningham, S., Florindo-López, C., Hátún, H., Johns, W., Josey, S. A., Larsen, K. M. H., Mulet, S., Oltmanns, M., Reverdin, G., Rossby, T., Thierry, V., Valdimarsson, H., and Yashayaev, I.: Ocean circulation causes the largest freshening event for 120 years in eastern subpolar North Atlantic, Nat. Commun., 11, 585, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14474-y, 2020.
Horner-Devine, A. R., Hetland, R. D., and MacDonald, D. G.: Mixing and transport in coastal river plumes, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 47, 569–594, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-fluid-010313-141408, 2015.
Huffman, G. J., Adler, R. F., Behrangi, A., Bolvin, D. T., Nelkin, E. J., Gu, G., and Ehsani, M. R.: The new version 3.2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) monthly and daily precipitation products, J. Climate, 36, 7635–7655, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-23-0123.1, 2023.
Ishii, M., Kimoto, M., Sakamoto, K., and Iwasaki, S.-I.: Steric sea level changes estimated from historical ocean subsurface temperature and salinity analyses, J. Oceanogr., 62, 155–170, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10872-006-0041-y, 2006.
Jaeger, G. S. and Mahadevan, A.: Submesoscale-selective compensation of fronts in a salinity-stratified ocean, Sci. Adv., 4, e1701504, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1701504, 2018.
Jarugula, S., Lee, T., Wang, O., and Fournier, S.: Maritime continent water cycle as a key forcing for decadal variation of upper-ocean salinity in the southeast Indian Ocean. J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 130, e2025JC022733, https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JC022733, 2025.
Johnson, G. C. and McPhaden, M. J.: Interior Pycnocline Flow from the Subtropical to the Equatorial Pacific Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 29, 3073–3089, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1999)029<3073:IPFFTS>2.0.CO;2, 1999.
Klein, P. and Lapeyre, G.: The oceanic vertical pump induced by mesoscale and submesoscale turbulence, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 1, 351–375, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163704, 2009.
Kolodziejczyk, N. and Gaillard, F.: Variability of the heat and salt budget in the subtropical southeastern Pacific mixed layer between 2004 and 2010: Spice injection mechanism, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 43, 1880–1898, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-13-04.1, 2013.
Kozlov, I. E., Plotnikov, E. V., and Manucharyan, G. E.: Brief Communication: Mesoscale and submesoscale dynamics in the marginal ice zone from sequential synthetic aperture radar observations, The Cryosphere, 14, 2941–2947, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2941-2020, 2020.
Kraus, E. B. and Turner, J. S.: A one-dimensional model of the seasonal thermocline: II. The general theory and its consequences, Tellus, 19, 98–106, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v19i1.9753, 1967.
Lagerloef, G., DeCharon, A., and Lindstrom, E.: Ocean salinity and the Aquarius/SAC-D Mission: a new frontier in ocean remote sensing, Mar. Technol. Soc. J., 47, 26–30, 2013.
Ledwell, J., Watson, A., and Law, C.: Evidence for slow mixing across the pycnocline from an open-ocean tracer-release experiment, Nature, 364, 701–703, https://doi.org/10.1038/364701a0, 1993.
Lee, T., Lagerloef, G., Gierach, M. M., Kao, H.-Y., Yueh, S., and Dohan, K.: Aquarius reveals salinity structure of tropical instability waves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L12610, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052232, 2012.
Lehmann, A., Myrberg, K., Post, P., Chubarenko, I., Dailidiene, I., Hinrichsen, H.-H., Hüssy, K., Liblik, T., Meier, H. E. M., Lips, U., and Bukanova, T.: Salinity dynamics of the Baltic Sea, Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 373–392, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-373-2022, 2022.
Li, G., Cheng, L., Zhu, J., Trenberth, K. E., Mann, M. E., and Abraham, J. P.: Increasing ocean stratification over the past half-century, Nat. Clim. Change, 10, 1116–1123, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-00918-2, 2020.
Li, L., Schmitt, R. W., Ummenhofer, C. C., and Karnauskas, K. B.: North Atlantic salinity as a predictor of Sahel rainfall, Sci. Adv., 2, e1501588, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501588, 2016.
Liu, C., Liang, X., and Yu, L.: Salinity trends and mass balances in the Mediterranean Sea: revisit the role of air-sea freshwater fluxes and oceanic exchange, Ocean Sci., 21, 2069–2083, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2069-2025, 2025.
Liu, H., Yu, L., and Lin, X.: Recent decadal change in the North Atlantic Subtropical Underwater associated with the poleward expansion of the surface salinity maximum, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 4433–4448, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014508, 2019.
Liu, M., Soden, B. J., Vecchi, G. A., and Wang, C.: The spread of ocean heat uptake efficiency traced to ocean salinity, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2022GL100171, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL100171, 2023.
Lu, Y., Li, Y., Lin, P., Cheng, L., Ge, K., Liu, H., Duan, J., and Wang, F.: North Atlantic–Pacific salinity contrast enhanced by wind and ocean warming, Nat. Clim. Change, 14, 723–731, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02033-y, 2024.
Lukas, R. and Lindstrom, E.: The mixed layer of the western equatorial Pacific Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 3343–3357, 1991.
Lysne, J. A. and Deser, C.: Wind-Driven Thermocline Variability in the Pacific: A Model–Data Comparison, J. Climate, 15, 829–845, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<0829:WDTVIT>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Lyu, Y., Bindoff, N. L., Mohapatra, S., Rathore, S., and Phillips, H. E.: Global water cycle pattern amplification: Contributing factors and mechanisms, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 130, e2024JC022278, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JC022278, 2025.
Maes, C., Picaut, J., and Belamari, S.: Salinity barrier layer and onset of El Niño in a Pacific coupled model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2206, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016029, 2002.
Maes, C., Reul, N., Behringer, D., and O'kane, T.: The salinity signature of the equatorial Pacific cold tongue as revealed by the satellite SMOS mission, Geoscience Letters, 1, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40562-014-0017-5, 2014.
Mahadevan, A. and Tandon, A.: An analysis of mechanisms for submesoscale vertical motion at ocean fronts, Ocean Model., 14, 241–256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2006.05.003, 2006.
Mahadevan, A., Tandon, A., and Ferrari, R.: Rapid changes in the mixed layer stratification driven by submesoscale instabilities and winds, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 115, C03017, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JC005203, 2010.
Marshall, J. and Schott, F.: Open-ocean convection: Observations, theory, and models, Rev. Geophys., 37, 1–64, https://doi.org/10.1029/98RG02739, 1999.
Marshall, J. C., Williams, R. G., and Nurser, A. J. G.: Inferring the Subduction Rate and Period over the North Atlantic, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 23, 1315–1329, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1993)023<1315:ITSRAP>2.0.CO;2, 1993.
McCreary, J. P. and Lu, P.: Interaction between the subtropical and equatorial ocean circulations: The subtropical cell, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 24, 466–497, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1994)024<0466:IBTSAE>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
McPhaden, M. J., Zebiak, S. E., and Glantz, M. H.: ENSO as an Integrating Concept in Earth Science, Science, 314, 1740–1745, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132588, 2006.
McWilliams, J. C.: Submesoscale currents in the ocean, Proc. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., 472, 20160117, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2016.0117, 2016.
Meier, H. E. M., Kjellström, E., and Graham, L. P.: Estimating uncertainties of projected Baltic Sea salinity in the late 21st century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L15705, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026488, 2006.
Melnichenko, O.: Multi-mission L4 Optimally Interpoated Sea Surface Salinity, Ver. 2.0. PO.DAAC, CA, USA [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/SMP20-4U7CS, 2023.
Melnichenko, O., Amores, A., Maximenko, N., Hacker, P., and Potemra, J.: Signature of mesoscale eddies in satellite sea surface salinity data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 1416–1424, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012420, 2017.
Mignot, J. and Frankignoul, C.: Local and remote impacts of a tropical Atlantic salinity anomaly, Clim. Dynam., 35, 1133–1147, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0621-9, 2010.
Mignot, J., Lazar, A., and Lacarra, M.: On the formation of barrier layers and associated vertical temperature inversions: A focus on the northwestern tropical Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 117, C02010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007435, 2012.
Morrow, R., Fu, L.-L., Ardhuin, F., Benkiran, M., Chapron, B., Cosme, E., d’Ovidio, F., Farrar, J. T., Gille, S. T., Lapeyre, G., Le Traon, P.-Y., Pascual, A., Ponte, A., Qiu, B., Rascle, N., Ubelmann, C., Wang, J., and Zaron, E. D.: Global observations of fine-scale ocean surface topography with the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission, Front. Mar. Sci., 6, 232, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00232, 2019.
Müller, V., Kieke, D., Myers, P. G., Pennelly, C., Steinfeldt, R., and Stendardo, I.: Heat and freshwater transport by mesoscale eddies in the southern subpolar North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 5565–5585, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014697, 2019.
Niiler, P. P.: Deepening of the wind-mixed layer, J. Mar. Res., 33, https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/1328 (last access: 24 May 2026), 1975.
Olivier, L., Reverdin, G., Boutin, J., Laxenaire, R., Iudicone, D., Pesant, S., Calil, P., Horstmann, J., Couet, D., Erta, J. M., Koch-Larrouy, A., Bertrand, A., Rousselot, P., Vergely, J.-L., Speich, S., and Araujo, M.: Late summer northwestward Amazon plume pathway under the action of the North Brazil Current rings, Remote Sens. Environ., 307, 114165, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2024.114165, 2024.
Pang, S., Wang, X., and Vialard, J.: How Well Do CMIP6 Models Simulate Salinity Barrier Layers in the North Indian Ocean?, J. Climate, 37, 289–308, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-23-0366.1, 2023.
Patterson, R. G., Cronin, M. F., Swart, S., Beja, J., Edholm, J. M., McKenna, J., Palter, J. B., Parker, A., Addey, C. I., Boone, W., Bhuyan, P., Buck, J. J. H., Burger, E. F., Burris, J., Camus, L., de Young, B., du Plessis, M., Flanigan, M., Foltz, G. R., Gille, S. T., Grare, L., Hansen, J. E., Hole, L. R., Honda, M. C., Hormann, V., Kohlman, C., Kosaka, N., Kuhn, C., Lenain, L., Looney, L., Marouchos, A., McGeorge, E. K., McMahon, C. R., Mitarai, S., Mordy, C., Nagano, A., Nicholson, S.-A., Nickford, S., O'Brien, K. M., Peddie, D., Ponsoni, L., Ramasco, V., Rozenauers, N., Siddle, E., Stienbarger, C., Sutton, A. J., Tada, N., Thomson, J., Ueki, I., Yu, L., Zhang, C., and Zhang, D.: Uncrewed surface vehicles in the global ocean observing system: A new Frontier for observing and monitoring at the air-sea interface, Front. Mar. Sci., 12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1523585, 2025.
Pierce, D. W., Gleckler, P. J., Barnett, T. P., Santer, B. D., and Durack, P. J.: The fingerprint of human-induced changes in the ocean's salinity and temperature fields, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L21704, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL053389, 2012.
Proshutinsky, A., Krishfield, R., Timmermans, M.-L., Toole, J., Carmack, E., McLaughlin, F., Williams, W. J., Zimmermann, S., Itoh, M., and Shimada, K.: Beaufort Gyre freshwater reservoir: State and variability from observations, J. Geophys. Res., 114, C00A10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JC005104, 2009.
Qiu, B. and Huang, R. X.: Ventilation of the North Atlantic and North Pacific: Subduction Versus Obduction, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 2374–2390, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<2374:VOTNAA>2.0.CO;2, 1995.
Qu, T., Gao, S., and Fukumori, I.: Formation of salinity maximum water and its contribution to the overturning circulation in the North Atlantic as revealed by a global general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 118, 1982–1994, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20152, 2013.
Qu, T., Song, Y. T., and Maes, C.: Sea surface salinity and barrier layer variability in the equatorial Pacific as seen from Aquarius and Argo, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119, 15–29, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009375, 2014.
Qu, T., Zhang, L., and Schneider, N.: North Atlantic subtropical underwater and its year-to-year variability in annual subduction rate during the Argo period, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 46, 1901–1916, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0246.1, 2016.
Rahmstorf, S.: Bifurcations of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation in response to changes in the hydrological cycle, Nature, 378, 145–149, https://doi.org/10.1038/378145a0, 1995.
Rahmstorf, S., Crucifix, M., Ganopolski, A., Goosse, H., Kamenkovich, I., Knutti, R., Lohmann, G., Marsh, R., Mysak, L. A., Wang, Z., and Weaver, A. J.: Thermohaline circulation hysteresis: A model intercomparison, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23605, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023655, 2005.
Rao, R. R. and Sivakumar, R.: Seasonal variability of sea surface salinity and salt budget of the mixed layer of the north Indian Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3009, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JC000907, 2003.
Rathore, S., Bindoff, N. L., Ummenhofer, C. C., Phillips, H. E., Feng, M., and Mishra, M.: Improving Australian rainfall prediction using sea surface salinity, J. Climate, 34, 2473–2490, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0625.1, 2021.
Reul, N., Tenerelli, J., Chapron, B., Vandemark, D., Quilfen, Y., and Kerr, Y.: SMOS satellite L-band radiometer: a new capability for ocean surface remote sensing in hurricanes, J. Geophys. Res., 117, C02006, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007474, 2012.
Reul, N., Chapron, B., Lee, T., Donlon, C., Boutin, J., and Alory, G.: Sea surface salinity structure of the meandering Gulf Stream revealed by SMOS sensor, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 3141–3148, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL059215, 2014.
Reul, N., Grodsky, S. A., Arias, M., Boutin, J., Catany, R., Chapron, B., D'Amico, F., Dinnat, E., Donlon, C., Fore, A., Fournier, S., Guimbard, S., Hasson, A., Kolodziejczyk, N., Lagerloef, G., Lee, T., Le Vine, D. M., Lindstrom, E., Maes, C., Mecklenburg, S., Meissner, T., Olmedo, E., Sabia, R., Tenerelli, J., Thouvenin-Masson, C., Turiel, A., Vergely, J.-L., Vinogradova, N., Wentz, F., and Yueh, S.: Sea surface salinity estimates from spaceborne L-band radiometers: An overview of the first decade of observation (2010–2019), Remote Sens. Environ., 242, 111769, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111769, 2020.
Riser, S. C., Freeland, H. J., Roemmich, D., Wijffels, S., Troisi, A., Belbéoch, M., Gilbert, D., Xu, J., Pouliquen, S., Thresher, A., Le Traon, P.-Y., Maze, G., Klein, B., Ravichandran, M., Grant, F., Poulain, P.-M., Suga, T., Lim, B., Sterl, A., Sutton, P., Mork, K.-A., Vélez-Belchí, P. J., Ansorge, I., King, B., Turton, J., Baringer, M., and Jayne, S. R.: Fifteen years of ocean observations with the global Argo array, Nat. Clim. Change, 6, 145–153, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2872, 2016.
Rohling, E. J. and Bigg, G. R.: Paleosalinity and δ18O: A critical assessment, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 1307–1318, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JC01047, 1998.
Roemmich, D. and Gilson, J.: The 2004–2008 mean and annual cycle of temperature, salinity, and steric height in the global ocean from the Argo Program, Prog. Oceanogr., 82, 81–100, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2009.03.004, 2009.
Röthig, T., Trevathan-Tackett, S. M., Voolstra, C. R., Ross, C., Chaffron, S., Durack, P. J., Warmuth, L. M., and Sweet, M.: Human-induced salinity changes impact marine organisms and ecosystems, Glob. Change Biol., 29, 4731–4749, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16859, 2023.
Ruddick, B. R.: A Practical Indicator of the Stability of the Water Column to Double-Diffusive Activity, Deep-Sea Res., 30, 1105–1107, https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(83)90063-8, 1983.
Rudnick, D. L. and Ferrari, R.: Compensation of horizontal temperature and salinity gradients in the ocean mixed layer, Science, 283, 526–529, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5401.526, 1999.
Salisbury, J., Vandemark, D., Campbell, J., Hunt, C., Wisser, D., Reul, N., and Chapron, B.: Spatial and temporal coherence between Amazon River discharge, salinity, and light absorption by colored organic carbon in western tropical Atlantic surface waters, J. Geophys. Res., 116, C00H02, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC006989, 2011.
Schanze, J. J., Schmitt, R. W., and Yu, L. L.: The global oceanic freshwater cycle: A state-of-the-art quantification, J. Mar. Res., 68, 569–595, https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/280 (last access: 24 May 2026), 2010.
Schmitt, R. W.: Salinity and the global water cycle, Oceanography, 21, 12–19, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2008.63, 2008.
Singh, H. K. A., Donohoe, A., Bitz, C. M., Nusbaumer, J., and Noone, D. C.: Greater aerial moisture transport distances with warming amplify interbasin salinity contrasts, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 8677–8684, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069796, 2016.
Skliris, N., Marsh, R., Josey, S. A., Good, S. A., Liu, C., and Allan, R. P.: Salinity changes in the World Ocean since 1950 in relation to changing surface freshwater fluxes, Clim. Dynam., 43, 709–736, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2131-7, 2014.
Skliris, N., Zika, J. D., Nurser, G., Josey, S. A., and Marsh, R.: Global water cycle amplifying at less than the Clausius-Clapeyron rate, Sci. Rep., 6, 38752, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38752, 2016.
Skliris, N., Zika, J. D., Herold, L., Josey, S. A., and Marsh, R.: Mediterranean sea water budget long-term trend inferred from salinity observations, Clim. Dynam., 51, 2857–2876, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-4053-7, 2018.
Stendardo, I., Rhein, M., and Hollmann, R.: A high resolution salinity time series 1993–2012 in the North Atlantic from Argo and Altimeter data, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 121, 2523–2551, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC011439, 2016.
Swart, S., du Plessis, M. D., Thompson, A. F., Biddle, L. C., Giddy, I., Linders, T., Mohrmann, M., and Nicholson, S.-A.: Submesoscale fronts in the Antarctic marginal ice zone and their response to wind forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2019GL086649, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086649, 2020.
Talley, L. D.: Freshwater Transport Estimates and the Global Overturning Circulation: Shallow, Deep and through Flow Components, Prog. Oceanogr., 78, 257–303, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2008.05.001, 2008.
Tapley, B. D., Bettadpur, S., Ries, J. C., Thompson, P. F., and Watkins, M. M.: GRACE measurements of mass variability in the Earth system, Science, 305, 503–505, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1099192, 2004.
Taylor, J. R. and Ferrari, R.: Buoyancy and Wind-Driven Convection at Mixed Layer Density Fronts, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 40, 1222–1242, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JPO4365.1, 2010.
Terray, L., Corre, L., Cravatte, S., Delcroix, T., Reverdin, G., and Ribes, A.: Near-surface salinity as Nature's rain gauge to detect human influence on the tropical water cycle, J. Climate, 25, 958–977, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-10-05025.1, 2012.
Thomas, L. and Ferrari, R.: Friction, Frontogenesis, and the Stratification of the Surface Mixed Layer, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 38, 2501–2518, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JPO3797.1, 2008.
Timmermans, M.-L. and Winsor, P.: Scales of horizontal density structure in the Chukchi Sea surface layer, Cont. Shelf Res., 52, 39–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2012.10.015, 2013.
Vinogradova, N. T. and Ponte, R. M.: Clarifying the link between surface salinity and freshwater fluxes on monthly to interannual time scales, J. Geophys. Res., 118, 3190–3201, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrc.20200, 2013.
Vinogradova, N. T. and Ponte, R. M.: In search of fingerprints of the recent intensification of the ocean water cycle, J. Climate, 30, 5513–5528, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0626.1, 2017.
Vinogradova, N., Lee, T., Boutin, J., Drushka, K., Fournier, S., Sabia, R., Stammer, D., Bayler, E., Reul, N., Gordon, A., Melnichenko, O., Li, L., Hackert, E., Martin, M., Kolodziejczyk, N., Hasson, A., Brown, S., Misra, S., and Lindstrom, E.: Satellite salinity observing system: recent discoveries and the way forward, Front. Mar. Sci., 6, 243, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00243, 2019.
Vinogradova, N. T., Pavelsky, T. M., Farrar, J. T., Hossain, F., and Fu, L.-L.: A new look at Earth's water and energy with SWOT, Nat. Water, 3, 27–37, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00372-w, 2025.
Vogt, L., Sallée, J.-B., and de Lavergne, C.: Stratification and overturning circulation are intertwined controls on ocean heat uptake efficiency in climate models, Ocean Sci., 21, 1081–1103, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-1081-2025, 2025.
Wang, F., Xu, X., Zhang, F., and Ma, L.: Structure of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation in three generations of climate models, Earth Space Sci., 10, e2023EA002887, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA002887, 2023.
Warren, B. A.: Why is no deep water formed in the North Pacific?, J. Mar. Res., 41, 327–347, https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/1685 (last access: 24 May 2026), 1983.
Weijer, W., Cheng, W., Drijfhout, S. S., Fedorov, A. V., Hu, A., Jackson, L. C., Liu, W., McDonagh, E. L., Mecking, J. V., and Zhang, J.: Stability of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: A review and synthesis, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 5336–5375, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015083, 2019.
Whitt, D. B. and Taylor, J. R.: Energetic Submesoscales Maintain Strong Mixed Layer Stratification during an Autumn Storm, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 47, 2419–2427, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0130.1, 2017.
Wunsch, C. and Ferrari, R.: Vertical mixing, energy, and the general circulation of the oceans, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 36, 281–314, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.122121, 2004.
Yeager, S. G. and Large, W. G.: Observational Evidence of Winter Spice Injection, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 37, 2895–2919, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JPO3629.1, 2007.
Yu, L.: A global relationship between the ocean water cycle and near-surface salinity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 116, C10025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006937, 2011.
Yu, L.: Sea-surface salinity fronts and associated salinity-minimum zones in the tropical ocean, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120, 4205–4225, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC010790, 2015.
Yu, L.: Global air–sea fluxes of heat, fresh water, and momentum: energy budget closure and unanswered questions, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 11, 227–248, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060704, 2019.
Yu, L.: Connecting subtropical salinity maxima to tropical salinity minima: Synchronization between ocean dynamics and the water cycle, Prog. Oceanogr., 219, 103172, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2023.103172, 2023.
Yu, L.: Meso–Submesoscale T–S Compensation and Density Variability in the North Atlantic from Saildrone, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 56, 115–134, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-25-0037.1, 2026.
Yu, L., Bingham, F. M., Lee, T., Dinnat, E. P., Fournier, S., Melnichenko, O., Tang, W., and Yueh, S. H.: Revisiting the global patterns of seasonal cycle in sea surface salinity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 126, e2020JC016789, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JC016789, 2021.
Yu, L., Jin, X., and Liu, H.: Poleward shift in ventilation of the North Atlantic subtropical underwater, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 258–266, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075772, 2018.
Yu, L., Josey, S. A., Bingham, F. M., and Lee, T.: Intensification of the global water cycle and evidence from ocean salinity: a synthesis review, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1472, 76–94, https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14354, 2020.
Zhang, L., Yin, X., Wang, Z., Liu, H., and Lin, M.: Preliminary analysis of the potential and limitations of MICAP for the retrieval of sea surface salinity, IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl., 11, 2979–2990, https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2018.2849408, 2018.
Zhu, J., Huang, B., Zhang, R. H., Hu, Z. Z., Kumar, A., Balmaseda, M. A., Marx, L., and Kinter III, J. L.: Salinity anomaly as a trigger for ENSO events, Sci. Rep., 4, 6821, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06821, 2014.
Zika, J. D., Skliris, N., Nurser, A. J. G., Josey, S. A., Mudryk, L., Laliberté, F., and Marsh, R.: Maintenance and Broadening of the Ocean's Salinity Distribution by the Water Cycle, J. Climate, 28, 9550–9560, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0273.1, 2015.
Zika, J. D., Skliris, N., Blaker, A. T., Marsh, R., Nurser, A. G., and Josey, S. A.: Improved estimates of water cycle change from ocean salinity: The key role of ocean warming, Environ. Res. Lett., 13, 074036, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aace42, 2018.
Zika, J. D., Gregory, J. M., McDonagh, E. L., Marzocchi, A., and Clément, L.: Recent Water Mass Changes Reveal Mechanisms of Ocean Warming, J. Climate, 34, 3461–3479, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0355.1, 2021.
Short summary
Ocean salinity has long served as the ocean's rain gauge, faithfully recording rainfall and evaporation. Yet this review reveals a scale-dependent role shaped by the competition between atmospheric forcing, currents, and mixing: salinity acts as a recorder of climate forcing, a tracer of subsurface pathways, or an active driver shaping density and mixing. The smallest, most dynamic scales remain beyond today's satellites, yet this is where Earth System models need observational constraints most.
Ocean salinity has long served as the ocean's rain gauge, faithfully recording rainfall and...
Special issue