Articles | Volume 20, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-475-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-475-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
04 Apr 2024
Research article |
| 04 Apr 2024
| 04 Apr 2024
Exploring the relationship between sea ice and phytoplankton growth in the Weddell Gyre using satellite and Argo float data
Clara Celestine Douglas
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Ocean BioGeosciences, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK
Nathan Briggs
Ocean BioGeosciences, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK
Peter Brown
Ocean BioGeosciences, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK
Graeme MacGilchrist
Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
Alberto Naveira Garabato
Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Related authors
No articles found.
Siv K. Lauvset, Nico Lange, Toste Tanhua, Henry C. Bittig, Are Olsen, Alex Kozyr, Marta Álvarez, Kumiko Azetsu-Scott, Peter J. Brown, Brendan R. Carter, Leticia Cotrim da Cunha, Mario Hoppema, Matthew P. Humphreys, Masao Ishii, Emil Jeansson, Akihiko Murata, Jens Daniel Müller, Fiz F. Pérez, Carsten Schirnick, Reiner Steinfeldt, Toru Suzuki, Adam Ulfsbo, Anton Velo, Ryan J. Woosley, and Robert M. Key
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 2047–2072, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2047-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2047-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
GLODAP is a data product for ocean inorganic carbon and related biogeochemical variables measured by the chemical analysis of water bottle samples from scientific cruises. GLODAPv2.2023 is the fifth update of GLODAPv2 from 2016. The data that are included have been subjected to extensive quality controlling, including systematic evaluation of measurement biases. This version contains data from 1108 hydrographic cruises covering the world's oceans from 1972 to 2021.
Chuqing Zhang, Yingxu Wu, Peter J. Brown, David Stappard, Amavi N. Silva, and Toby Tyrrell
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3143, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3143, 2024
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we found that float-based pCO2 is overall high by systematically comparing ship-based pCO2 with float-based pCO2. This finding partly explains the apparent difference between the carbon fluxes calculated from the float data and other databases. It inspires further examination of the quality of the float pH data and the pCO2 calculation process.
Jennifer Cocks, Alessandro Silvano, Alice Marzocchi, Oana Dragomir, Noémie Schifano, Anna E. Hogg, and Alberto C. Naveira Garabato
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3050, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3050, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Heat and freshwater fluxes in the Southern Ocean mediate global ocean circulation and abyssal ventilation. These fluxes manifest as changes in steric height: sea level anomalies from changes in ocean density. We compute the steric height anomaly of the Southern Ocean using satellite data and validate it against in-situ observations. We analyse interannual patterns, drawing links to climate variability, and discuss the effectiveness of the method, highlighting issues and suggesting improvements.
Christoph Heinze, Thorsten Blenckner, Peter Brown, Friederike Fröb, Anne Morée, Adrian L. New, Cara Nissen, Stefanie Rynders, Isabel Seguro, Yevgeny Aksenov, Yuri Artioli, Timothée Bourgeois, Friedrich Burger, Jonathan Buzan, B. B. Cael, Veli Çağlar Yumruktepe, Melissa Chierici, Christopher Danek, Ulf Dieckmann, Agneta Fransson, Thomas Frölicher, Giovanni Galli, Marion Gehlen, Aridane G. González, Melchor Gonzalez-Davila, Nicolas Gruber, Örjan Gustafsson, Judith Hauck, Mikko Heino, Stephanie Henson, Jenny Hieronymus, I. Emma Huertas, Fatma Jebri, Aurich Jeltsch-Thömmes, Fortunat Joos, Jaideep Joshi, Stephen Kelly, Nandini Menon, Precious Mongwe, Laurent Oziel, Sólveig Ólafsdottir, Julien Palmieri, Fiz F. Pérez, Rajamohanan Pillai Ranith, Juliano Ramanantsoa, Tilla Roy, Dagmara Rusiecka, J. Magdalena Santana Casiano, Yeray Santana-Falcón, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, Miriam Seifert, Anna Shchiptsova, Bablu Sinha, Christopher Somes, Reiner Steinfeldt, Dandan Tao, Jerry Tjiputra, Adam Ulfsbo, Christoph Völker, Tsuyoshi Wakamatsu, and Ying Ye
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2023-182, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2023-182, 2023
Revised manuscript under review for BG
Short summary
Short summary
For assessing the consequences of human-induced climate change for the marine realm, it is necessary to not only look at gradual changes but also at abrupt changes of environmental conditions. We summarise abrupt changes in ocean warming, acidification, and oxygen concentration as the key environmental factors for ecosystems. Taking these abrupt changes into account requires greenhouse gas emissions to be reduced to a larger extent than previously thought to limit respective damage.
Dani C. Jones, Maike Sonnewald, Shenjie Zhou, Ute Hausmann, Andrew J. S. Meijers, Isabella Rosso, Lars Boehme, Michael P. Meredith, and Alberto C. Naveira Garabato
Ocean Sci., 19, 857–885, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-857-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-857-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Machine learning is transforming oceanography. For example, unsupervised classification approaches help researchers identify underappreciated structures in ocean data, helping to generate new hypotheses. In this work, we use a type of unsupervised classification to identify structures in the temperature and salinity structure of the Weddell Gyre, which is an important region for global ocean circulation and for climate. We use our method to generate new ideas about mixing in the Weddell Gyre.
Siv K. Lauvset, Nico Lange, Toste Tanhua, Henry C. Bittig, Are Olsen, Alex Kozyr, Simone Alin, Marta Álvarez, Kumiko Azetsu-Scott, Leticia Barbero, Susan Becker, Peter J. Brown, Brendan R. Carter, Leticia Cotrim da Cunha, Richard A. Feely, Mario Hoppema, Matthew P. Humphreys, Masao Ishii, Emil Jeansson, Li-Qing Jiang, Steve D. Jones, Claire Lo Monaco, Akihiko Murata, Jens Daniel Müller, Fiz F. Pérez, Benjamin Pfeil, Carsten Schirnick, Reiner Steinfeldt, Toru Suzuki, Bronte Tilbrook, Adam Ulfsbo, Anton Velo, Ryan J. Woosley, and Robert M. Key
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 5543–5572, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5543-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5543-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
GLODAP is a data product for ocean inorganic carbon and related biogeochemical variables measured by the chemical analysis of water bottle samples from scientific cruises. GLODAPv2.2022 is the fourth update of GLODAPv2 from 2016. The data that are included have been subjected to extensive quality controlling, including systematic evaluation of measurement biases. This version contains data from 1085 hydrographic cruises covering the world's oceans from 1972 to 2021.
Stefanie L. Ypma, Quinten Bohte, Alexander Forryan, Alberto C. Naveira Garabato, Andy Donnelly, and Erik van Sebille
Ocean Sci., 18, 1477–1490, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1477-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1477-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In this research we aim to improve cleanup efforts on the Galapagos Islands of marine plastic debris when resources are limited and the distribution of the plastic on shorelines is unknown. Using a network that describes the flow of macroplastic between the islands we have identified the most efficient cleanup locations, quantified the impact of targeting these locations and showed that shorelines where the plastic is unlikely to leave are likely efficient cleanup locations.
Charles E. Turner, Peter J. Brown, Kevin I. C. Oliver, and Elaine L. McDonagh
Ocean Sci., 18, 523–548, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-523-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-523-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Ocean heat and carbon content increase proportionately as the planet warms. However, circulation changes in response to changing heat content, redistributing preindustrial heat, carbon, and salinity fields. Redistribution leaves properties unchanged, so we may leverage our skill identifying preindustrial carbon in order to trace preindustrial heat and salinity field redistribution. Excess salinity opposes excess-temperature-induced density change, and redistribution grows continually.
Siv K. Lauvset, Nico Lange, Toste Tanhua, Henry C. Bittig, Are Olsen, Alex Kozyr, Marta Álvarez, Susan Becker, Peter J. Brown, Brendan R. Carter, Leticia Cotrim da Cunha, Richard A. Feely, Steven van Heuven, Mario Hoppema, Masao Ishii, Emil Jeansson, Sara Jutterström, Steve D. Jones, Maren K. Karlsen, Claire Lo Monaco, Patrick Michaelis, Akihiko Murata, Fiz F. Pérez, Benjamin Pfeil, Carsten Schirnick, Reiner Steinfeldt, Toru Suzuki, Bronte Tilbrook, Anton Velo, Rik Wanninkhof, Ryan J. Woosley, and Robert M. Key
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 5565–5589, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-5565-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-5565-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
GLODAP is a data product for ocean inorganic carbon and related biogeochemical variables measured by the chemical analysis of water bottle samples from scientific cruises. GLODAPv2.2021 is the third update of GLODAPv2 from 2016. The data that are included have been subjected to extensive quality control, including systematic evaluation of measurement biases. This version contains data from 989 hydrographic cruises covering the world's oceans from 1972 to 2020.
Are Olsen, Nico Lange, Robert M. Key, Toste Tanhua, Henry C. Bittig, Alex Kozyr, Marta Álvarez, Kumiko Azetsu-Scott, Susan Becker, Peter J. Brown, Brendan R. Carter, Leticia Cotrim da Cunha, Richard A. Feely, Steven van Heuven, Mario Hoppema, Masao Ishii, Emil Jeansson, Sara Jutterström, Camilla S. Landa, Siv K. Lauvset, Patrick Michaelis, Akihiko Murata, Fiz F. Pérez, Benjamin Pfeil, Carsten Schirnick, Reiner Steinfeldt, Toru Suzuki, Bronte Tilbrook, Anton Velo, Rik Wanninkhof, and Ryan J. Woosley
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 3653–3678, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3653-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3653-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
GLODAP is a data product for ocean inorganic carbon and related biogeochemical variables measured by chemical analysis of water bottle samples at scientific cruises. GLODAPv2.2020 is the second update of GLODAPv2 from 2016. The data that are included have been subjected to extensive quality control, including systematic evaluation of measurement biases. This version contains data from 946 hydrographic cruises covering the world's oceans from 1972 to 2019.
Pieter Demuynck, Toby Tyrrell, Alberto Naveira Garabato, Mark Christopher Moore, and Adrian Peter Martin
Biogeosciences, 17, 2289–2314, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2289-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2289-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The availability of macronutrients N and Si is of key importance to sustain life in the Southern Ocean. N and Si are available in abundance at the southern boundary of the Southern Ocean due to constant supply from the deep ocean. In the more northern regions of the Southern Ocean, a decline in macronutrient concentration is noticed, especially strong for Si rather than N. This paper uses a simplified biogeochemical model to investigate processes responsible for this decline in concentration.
Jan D. Zika, Jean-Baptiste Sallée, Andrew J. S. Meijers, Alberto C. Naveira-Garabato, Andrew J. Watson, Marie-Jose Messias, and Brian A. King
Ocean Sci., 16, 323–336, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-323-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-323-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The ocean can regulate climate by distributing heat and carbon dioxide into its interior. This work has resulted from a major experiment aimed at understanding how that distribution occurs. In the experiment an artificial tracer was released into the ocean. After release the tracer was tracked as it was distorted by ocean currents. Using novel methods we reveal how the tracer's distortions follow the movement of the underlying water masses in the ocean and we estimate the rate at which it mixes.
Alexander Forryan, Sheldon Bacon, Takamasa Tsubouchi, Sinhué Torres-Valdés, and Alberto C. Naveira Garabato
The Cryosphere, 13, 2111–2131, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2111-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2111-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We compare control volume and geochemical tracer-based methods of estimating the Arctic Ocean freshwater budget and find both methods in good agreement. Inconsistencies arise from the distinction between
Atlanticand
Pacificwaters in the geochemical calculations. The definition of Pacific waters is particularly problematic due to the non-conservative nature of the nutrients underpinning the definition and the low salinity characterizing waters entering the Arctic through Bering Strait.
M. Dolores Pérez-Hernández, Alonso Hernández-Guerra, Isis Comas-Rodríguez, Verónica M. Benítez-Barrios, Eugenio Fraile-Nuez, Josep L. Pelegrí, and Alberto C. Naveira Garabato
Ocean Sci., 13, 577–587, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-13-577-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-13-577-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The decadal differences between the ALBATROSS (April 1999) and MOC2-Austral (February 2010) hydrographic cruises are analyzed. Changes in the intermediate water masses beneath seem to be very sensitive to the wind conditions existing in their formation area. The Subantarctic Front is wider and weaker in 2010 than in 1999, while the Polar Front remains in the same position and strengthens.
Cited articles
Akhoudas, C. H., Sallée, J. B., Haumann, F. A., Meredith, M. P., Garabato, A. N., Reverdin, G., Jullion, L., Aloisi, G., Benetti, M., Leng, M. J., and Arrowsmith, C.: Ventilation of the abyss in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, Sci. Rep., 11, 6760, https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-021-86043-2, 2021. a
Ardyna, M., Claustre, H., Sallée, J. B., D'Ovidio, F., Gentili, B., van Dijken, G., D'Ortenzio, F., and Arrigo, K. R.: Delineating environmental control of phytoplankton biomass and phenology in the Southern Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 5016–5024, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072428, 2017. a
Arrigo, K. R. and van Dijken, G. L.: Annual cycles of sea ice and phytoplankton in Cape Bathurst polynya, southeastern Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 2–5, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018978, 2004. a
Arrigo, K. R. and Van Dijken, G. L.: Secular trends in Arctic Ocean net primary production, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 116, C09011, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007151, 2011. a
Arteaga, L. A., Pahlow, M., Bushinsky, S. M., and Sarmiento, J. L.: Nutrient Controls on Export Production in the Southern Ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 33, 942–956, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GB006236, 2019. a
Arteaga, L. A., Boss, E., Behrenfeld, M. J., Westberry, T. K., and Sarmiento, J. L.: Seasonal modulation of phytoplankton biomass in the Southern Ocean, Nat. Commun., 11, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19157-2, 2020. a
Bacon, S. and Jullion, L.: RRS James Cook: Antarctic deep water rates of export (ANDREX), Tech. rep., National Oceanography Centre, 2009. a
Baldry, K., Strutton, P. G., Hill, N. A., and Boyd, P. W.: Subsurface Chlorophyll-a Maxima in the Southern Ocean, Front. Mar. Sci., 7, 671, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00671, 2020. a, b
Behrenfeld, M. J. and Falkowski, P. G.: Photosynthetic rates derived from satellite-based chlorophyll concentration, Limnol. Oceanogr., 42, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1997.42.1.0001, 1997. a
Behrenfeld, M. J., Boss, E., Siegel, D. A., and Shea, D. M.: Carbon-based ocean productivity and phytoplankton physiology from space, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 19, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GB002299, 2005. a
Biddle, L. C. and Swart, S.: The Observed Seasonal Cycle of Submesoscale Processes in the Antarctic Marginal Ice Zone, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 125, e2019JC015587, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015587, 2020. a
Bisson, K. M. and Cael, B. B.: How Are Under Ice Phytoplankton Related to Sea Ice in the Southern Ocean?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2021GL095051, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095051, 2021. a, b, c
Boyd, P. W., Arrigo, K. R., Strzepek, R., and Van Dijken, G. L.: Mapping phytoplankton iron utilization: Insights into Southern Ocean supply mechanisms, J. Geophys. Res., 117, 6009, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007726, 2012. a, b, c
Boyd, P. W., Claustre, H., Levy, M., Siegel, D. A., and Weber, T.: Multi-faceted particle pumps drive carbon sequestration in the ocean, Nature, 568, 327–335, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1098-2, 2019. a
Briggs, E. M., Martz, T. R., Talley, L. D., Mazloff, M. R., and Johnson, K. S.: Physical and Biological Drivers of Biogeochemical Tracers Within the Seasonal Sea Ice Zone of the Southern Ocean From Profiling Floats, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 123, 746–758, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC012846, 2018. a, b
Briggs, N., Perry, M. J., Cetinić, I., Lee, C., D'Asaro, E., Gray, A. M., and Rehm, E.: High-resolution observations of aggregate flux during a sub-polar North Atlantic spring bloom, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 58, 1031–1039, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2011.07.007, 2011. a
Bronselaer, B., Russell, J. L., Winton, M., Williams, N. L., Key, R. M., Dunne, J. P., Feely, R. A., Johnson, K. S., and Sarmiento, J. L.: Importance of wind and meltwater for observed chemical and physical changes in the Southern Ocean, Nat. Geosci., 13, 13, 35–42, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0502-8, 2020. a
Brown, P. J., Meredith, M. P., Jullion, L., Garabato, A. N., Torres-Valdés, S., Holland, P., Leng, M. J., and Venables, H.: Freshwater fluxes in the Weddell Gyre: results from δ18O, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 372, 20130298, https://doi.org/10.1098/RSTA.2013.0298, 2014. a
Brown, P. J., Jullion, L., Landschützer, P., Bakker, D. C., Naveira Garabato, A. C., Meredith, M. P., Torres-Valdés, S., Watson, A. J., Hoppema, M., Loose, B., Jones, E. M., Telszewski, M., Jones, S. D., and Wanninkhof, R.: Carbon dynamics of the Weddell Gyre, Southern Ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 29, 288–306, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GB005006, 2015. a, b, c, d
Buchovecky, B., MacGilchrist, G. A., Bushuk, M., Haumann, F. A., Frölicher, T. L., Le Grix, N., and Dunne, J.: Potential Predictability of the Spring Bloom in the Southern Ocean Sea Ice Zone, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL105139, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL105139, 2023. a
Bushinsky, S. M., Landschützer, P., Rödenbeck, C., Gray, A. R., Baker, D., Mazloff, M. R., Resplandy, L., Johnson, K. S., and Sarmiento, J. L.: Reassessing Southern Ocean Air–Sea CO2 Flux Estimates With the Addition of Biogeochemical Float Observations, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 33, 1370–1388, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GB006176, 2019. a
Bushuk, M., Winton, M., Haumann, F. A., Delworth, T., Lu, F., Zhang, Y., Jia, L., Zhang, L., Cooke, W., Harrison, M., Hurlin, B., Johnson, N. C., Kapnick, S. B., McHugh, C., Murakami, H., Rosati, A., Tseng, K. C., Wittenberg, A. T., Yang, X., and Zeng, F.: Seasonal prediction and predictability of regional antarctic Sea ice, J. Climate, 34, 6207–6233, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0965.1, 2021. a
Campbell, E. C., Wilson, E. A., Kent Moore, G. W., Riser, S. C., Brayton, C. E., Mazloff, M. R., and Talley, L. D.: Antarctic offshore polynyas linked to Southern Hemisphere climate anomalies, Nature, 570, 319–325, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1294-0, 2019. a
Casagrande, F., Stachelski, L., and de Souza, R. B.: Assessment of Antarctic sea ice area and concentration in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 and Phase 6 models, Int. J. Climatol., 43, 1314–1332, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7916, 2023. a, b, c, d
de Baar, H. J., Bathmannt, U., Smetacek, V., Löscher, B. M., and Veth, C.: Importance of iron for plankton blooms and carbon dioxide drawdown in the Southern Ocean, Nature, 373, 412–415, https://doi.org/10.1038/373412a0, 1995. a
Douglas, C. C., Briggs, N., Brown, P., MacGilchrist, G., and Naveira Garabato, A.: Douglas et al., Ocean Science. Weddell Gyre NPP and Sea Ice, Zenodo [code, data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7951184, 2023. a
Ducklow, H. W., Stukel, M. R., Eveleth, R., Doney, S. C., Jickells, T., Schofield, O., Baker, A. R., Brindle, J., Chance, R., and Cassar, N.: Spring-summer net community production, new production, particle export and related water column biogeochemical processes in the marginal sea ice zone of the Western Antarctic Peninsula 2012–2014, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 376, 20170177, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0177, 2018. a
Geibert, W., Assmy, P., Bakker, D. C., Hanfland, C., Hoppema, M., Pichevin, L. E., Schröder, M., Schwarz, J. N., Stimac, I., Usbeck, R., and Webb, A.: High productivity in an ice melting hot spot at the eastern boundary of the Weddell Gyre, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 24, GB3007, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GB003657, 2010. a, b
Giddy, I., Nicholson, S., Queste, B., Thomalla, S., and Swart, S.: Sea-ice impacts inter-annual variability in phytoplankton phenology and carbon export in the Weddell Sea, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL103695, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103695, 2023. a
Gordon, H. R. and McCluney, W. R.: Estimation of the Depth of Sunlight Penetration in the Sea for Remote Sensing, Appl. Optics, 14, 413–416, https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.14.000413, 1975. a
Gupta, M., Follows, M. J., and Lauderdale, J. M.: The Effect of Antarctic Sea Ice on Southern Ocean Carbon Outgassing: Capping Versus Light Attenuation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 34, e2019GB006489, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GB006489, 2020. a, b
Hague, M. and Vichi, M.: Southern Ocean Biogeochemical Argo detect under-ice phytoplankton growth before sea ice retreat, Biogeosciences, 18, 25–38, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-25-2021, 2021. a, b, c
Hauck, J., Völker, C., Wolf-Gladrow, D. A., Laufkötter, C., Vogt, M., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Buitenhuis, E. T., Doney, S. C., Dunne, J., Gruber, N., Hashioka, T., John, J., Quéré, C. L., Lima, I. D., Nakano, H., Séférian, R., and Totterdell, I.: On the Southern Ocean CO 2 uptake and the role of the biological carbon pump in the 21st century, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 29, 1451–1470, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GB005140, 2015. a, b
Hawco, N. J., Tagliabue, A., and Twining, B. S.: Manganese Limitation of Phytoplankton Physiology and Productivity in the Southern Ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 36, e2022GB007382, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007382, 2022. a
Henley, S., Cavan, E. L., Fawcett, S. E., Kerr, R., Monteiro, T., Sherrell, R. M., Bowie, A. R., Boyd, P. W., Barnes, D. K. A., Schloss, I. R., Marshall, T., Flynn, R., and Smith, S.: Changing Biogeochemistry of the Southern Ocean and Its Ecosystem Implications, Front. Mar. Sci., 7, 581, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00581, 2020. a, b, c
Henson, S. A., Laufkötter, C., Leung, S., Giering, S. L., Palevsky, H. I., and Cavan, E. L.: Uncertain response of ocean biological carbon export in a changing world, Nat. Geosci., 15, 248–254, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-00927-0, 2022. a
Hindell, M. A., Reisinger, R. R., Ropert-Coudert, Y., Hückstädt, L. A., Trathan, P. N., Bornemann, H., Charrassin, J. B., Chown, S. L., Costa, D. P., Danis, B., Lea, M. A., Thompson, D., Torres, L. G., Van de Putte, A. P., Alderman, R., Andrews-Goff, V., Arthur, B., Ballard, G., Bengtson, J., Bester, M. N., Blix, A. S., Boehme, L., Bost, C. A., Boveng, P., Cleeland, J., Constantine, R., Corney, S., Crawford, R. J., Dalla Rosa, L., de Bruyn, P. J., Delord, K., Descamps, S., Double, M., Emmerson, L., Fedak, M., Friedlaender, A., Gales, N., Goebel, M. E., Goetz, K. T., Guinet, C., Goldsworthy, S. D., Harcourt, R., Hinke, J. T., Jerosch, K., Kato, A., Kerry, K. R., Kirkwood, R., Kooyman, G. L., Kovacs, K. M., Lawton, K., Lowther, A. D., Lydersen, C., Lyver, P. O., Makhado, A. B., Márquez, M. E., McDonald, B. I., McMahon, C. R., Muelbert, M., Nachtsheim, D., Nicholls, K. W., Nordøy, E. S., Olmastroni, S., Phillips, R. A., Pistorius, P., Plötz, J., Pütz, K., Ratcliffe, N., Ryan, P. G., Santos, M., Southwell, C., Staniland, I., Takahashi, A., Tarroux, A., Trivelpiece, W., Wakefield, E., Weimerskirch, H., Wienecke, B., Xavier, J. C., Wotherspoon, S., Jonsen, I. D., and Raymond, B.: Tracking of marine predators to protect Southern Ocean ecosystems, Nature, 580, 87–92, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2126-y, 2020. a
Hoppema, M.: Weddell Sea is a globally significant contributor to deep-sea sequestration of natural carbon dioxide, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 51, 1169–1177, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2004.02.011, 2004. a
Hoppema, M., Goeyens, L., and Fahrbach, E.: Intense nutrient removal in the remote area off Larsen Ice Shelf (Weddell Sea), Polar Biol., 23, 85–94, 2000. a
Hoppema, M., Middag, R., De Baar, H. J., Fahrbach, E., Van Weerlee, E. M., and Thomas, H.: Whole season net community production in the Weddell Sea, Polar Biol., 31, 101–111, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-007-0336-5, 2007. a
Hoppema, M., Bakker, K., van Heuven, S. M., van Ooijen, J. C., and de Baar, H. J.: Distributions, trends and inter-annual variability of nutrients along a repeat section through the Weddell Sea (1996–2011), Mar. Chem., 177, 545–553, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2015.08.007, 2015. a, b, c
Johnson, K. S., Plant, J. N., Coletti, L. J., Jannasch, H. W., Sakamoto, C. M., Riser, S. C., Swift, D. D., Williams, N. L., Boss, E., Haëntjens, N., Talley, L. D., and Sarmiento, J. L.: Biogeochemical sensor performance in the SOCCOM profiling float array, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 6416–6436, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC012838, 2017. a, b
Johnson, K. S., Riser, S. C., Talley, L. D., Sarmiento, J. L., Swift, D. D., Plant, J. N., Maurer, T. L., Key, R. M., Carter, B. R., Williams, N. L., Dickson, A. G., and Schofield, O.: SOCCOM float data – Snapshot 2021-12-21, Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling (SOCCOM) Float Data Archive, UC San Diego Library Digital Collections [data set], https://doi.org/10.6075/J00R9PJW, 2021. a
Jullion, L., Garabato, A. C., Bacon, S., Meredith, M. P., Brown, P. J., Torres-Valdés, S., Speer, K. G., Holland, P. R., Dong, J., Bakker, D., Hoppema, M., Loose, B., Venables, H. J., Jenkins, W. J., Messias, M. J., and Fahrbach, E.: The contribution of the Weddell Gyre to the lower limb of the Global Overturning Circulation, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119, 3357–3377, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009725, 2014. a, b
Kauko, H. M., Assmy, P., Peeken, I., Różańska-Pluta, M., Wiktor, J. M., Bratbak, G., Singh, A., Ryan-Keogh, T. J., and Moreau, S.: First phytoplankton community assessment of the Kong Håkon VII Hav, Southern Ocean, during austral autumn, Biogeosciences, 19, 5449–5482, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5449-2022, 2022. a
Kim, S.-U. and Kim, K.-Y.: Impact of climate change on the primary production and related biogeochemical cycles in the coastal and sea ice zone of the Southern Ocean, Sci. Total Environ., 751, 141678, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141678, 2021. a
Klatt, O., Boebel, O., and Fahrbach, E.: A profiling float's sense of ice, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 24, 1301–1308, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH2026.1, 2007. a, b
Kumar, A., Yadav, J., and Mohan, R.: Seasonal sea-ice variability and its trend in the Weddell Sea sector of West Antarctica, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 024046, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abdc88, 2021. a, b, c
Lafond, A., Leblanc, K., Legras, J., Cornet, V., and Quéguiner, B.: The structure of diatom communities constrains biogeochemical properties in surface waters of the Southern Ocean (Kerguelen Plateau), J. Marine Syst., 212, 103458, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2020.103458, 2020. a
Libera, S., Hobbs, W., Klocker, A., Meyer, A., and Matear, R.: Ocean-Sea Ice Processes and Their Role in Multi-Month Predictability of Antarctic Sea Ice, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL097047, 2022. a
Lin, Y., Moreno, C., Marchetti, A., Ducklow, H., Schofield, O., Delage, E., Meredith, M., Li, Z., Eveillard, D., Chaffron, S., and Cassar, N.: Decline in plankton diversity and carbon flux with reduced sea ice extent along the Western Antarctic Peninsula, Nat. Commun., 12, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25235-w, 2021. a
Ludescher, J., Yuan, N., and Bunde, A.: Detecting the statistical significance of the trends in the Antarctic sea ice extent: an indication for a turning point, Clim. Dynam., 53, 237–244, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4579-3, 2019. a, b
Mascioni, M., Almandoz, G. O., Ekern, L., Pan, B. J., and Vernet, M.: Microplanktonic diatom assemblages dominated the primary production but not the biomass in an Antarctic fjord, J. Marine Syst., 224, 103624, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JMARSYS.2021.103624, 2021. a
McClish, S. and Bushinsky, S. M.: Majority of Southern Ocean Seasonal Sea Ice Zone Bloom Net Community Production Precedes Total Ice Retreat, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL103459, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103459, 2023. a, b, c
McGillicuddy, D. J., Sedwick, P. N., Dinniman, M. S., Arrigo, K. R., Bibby, T. S., Greenan, B. J., Hofmann, E. E., Klinck, J. M., Smith, W. O., Mack, S. L., Marsay, C. M., Sohst, B. M., and Van Dijken, G. L.: Iron supply and demand in an Antarctic shelf ecosystem, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 8088–8097, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL065727, 2015. a, b, c, d, e
Meier, W. N., Fetterer, F., Windnagel, A. K., and Stewart, J. S.: NOAA/NSIDC Climate Data Record of Passive Microwave Sea Ice Concentration, Version 4, 2002–2021, 2021. a
Meredith, M., Sommerkorn, M., Cassotta, S., Derksen, C., Ekaykin, A., Hollowed, A., Kofinas, G., Mackintosh, A., Melbourne-Thomas, J., Muelbert, M., Ottersen, G., Pritchard, H., and Schuur, E.: Polar Regions, in: The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, edited by: Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D., Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Tignor, M., Poloczanska, E., Mintenbeck, K., Alegría, A., Nicolai, M., Okem, A., Petzold, J., Rama, B., and Weyer, N., 203–320, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781009157964, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.005, 2019. a
Meredith, M. P.: Cruise report: RRS James Clark Ross JR235/236/239, Tech. rep., British Antarctic Survey, 2010. a
Meredith, M. P., Jullion, L., Brown, P. J., Garabato, A. C., and Couldrey, M. P.: Dense waters of the Weddell and Scotia seas: Recent changes in properties and circulation, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 372, 20130041, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0041, 2014. a
Moreau, S., Hattermann, T., de Steur, L., Kauko, H. M., Ahonen, H., Ardelan, M., Assmy, P., Chierici, M., Descamps, S., Dinter, T., Falkenhaug, T., Fransson, A., Grønningsæter, E., Hallfredsson, E. H., Huhn, O., Lebrun, A., Lowther, A., Lübcker, N., Monteiro, P., Peeken, I., Roychoudhury, A., Różańska, M., Ryan-Keogh, T., Sanchez, N., Singh, A., Simonsen, J. H., Steiger, N., Thomalla, S. J., van Tonder, A., Wiktor, J. M., and Steen, H.: Wind-driven upwelling of iron sustains dense blooms and food webs in the eastern Weddell Gyre, Nat. Commun., 14, 1303, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36992-1, 2023. a, b, c, d
Morel, A.: Light and marine photosynthesis: A spectral model with geochemical and climatological implications, Prog. Oceanogr., 26, 263–306, 1991. a
National Geophysical Data Center/NESDIS/NOAA/U.S. Department of Commerce: TerrainBase, Global 5 Arc-minute Ocean Depth and Land Elevation from the US National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), Research Data Archive at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Computational and Information Systems Laboratory, https://doi.org/10.5065/E08M-4482, 1995. a
Nissen, C., Timmermann, R., Hoppema, M., Gürses, Ö., and Hauck, J.: Abruptly attenuated carbon sequestration with Weddell Sea dense waters by 2100, Nat. Commun., 13, 3402, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30671-3, 2022. a
Noh, K. M., Lim, H. G., Yang, E. J., and Kug, J. S.: Emergent Constraint for Future Decline in Arctic Phytoplankton Concentration, Earth's Future, 11, e2022EF003427, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EF003427, 2023. a, b
O'Malley, R. and OSU (Oregon State University): Ocean productivity, OSU [data set], https://www.science.oregonstate.edu/ocean.productivity/ (last access: 13 May 2022), 2022. a
Park, J., Kuzminov, F. I., Bailleul, B., Yang, E. J., Lee, S. H., Falkowski, P. G., and Gorbunov, M. Y.: Light availability rather than Fe controls the magnitude of massive phytoplankton bloom in the Amundsen Sea polynyas, Antarctica, Limnol. Oceanogr., 62, 2260–2276, https://doi.org/10.1002/LNO.10565, 2017. a
Peck, L. S., Barnes, D. K., Cook, A. J., Fleming, A. H., and Clarke, A.: Negative feedback in the cold: Ice retreat produces new carbon sinks in Antarctica, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 2614–2623, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02071.x, 2010. a, b
Pinkerton, M. H., Boyd, P. W., Deppeler, S., Hayward, A., Höfer, J., and Moreau, S.: Evidence for the Impact of Climate Change on Primary Producers in the Southern Ocean, Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 134, https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.592027, 2021. a
Pope, A., Wagner, P., Johnson, R., Shutler, J. D., Baeseman, J., and Newman, L.: Community review of Southern Ocean satellite data needs, Antarct. Sci., 29, 97–138, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102016000390, 2017. a, b, c, d
Prend, C. J., Keerthi, M. G., Lévy, M., Aumont, O., Gille, S. T., and Talley, L. D.: Sub-Seasonal Forcing Drives Year-To-Year Variations of Southern Ocean Primary Productivity, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 36, e2022GB007329, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007329, 2022. a
Quéguiner, B.: Iron fertilization and the structure of planktonic communities in high nutrient regions of the Southern Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 90, 43–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DSR2.2012.07.024, 2013. a
Rohr, T., Long, M. C., Kavanaugh, M. T., Lindsay, K., and Doney, S. C.: Variability in the mechanisms controlling Southern Ocean phytoplankton bloom phenology in an ocean model and satellite observations, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 31, 922–940, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005615, 2017. a, b, c, d
Ryan-Keogh, T. J., DeLizo, L. M., Smith, W. O., Sedwick, P. N., McGillicuddy, D. J., Moore, C. M., and Bibby, T. S.: Temporal progression of photosynthetic-strategy in phytoplankton in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, J. Marine Syst., 166, 87–96, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2016.08.014, 2017. a
Ryan-Keogh, T. J., Thomalla, S. J., Chang, N., and Moalusi, T.: A new global oceanic multi-model net primary productivity data product, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 4829–4848, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-4829-2023, 2023. a
Schultz, C., Doney, S. C., Hauck, J., Kavanaugh, M. T., and Schofield, O.: Modeling Phytoplankton Blooms and Inorganic Carbon Responses to Sea-Ice Variability in the West Antarctic Peninsula, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 126, e2020JG006227, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JG006227, 2021. a
Sedwick, P. N. and Ditullio, G. R.: Regulation of algal blooms in Antarctic shelf waters by the release of iron from melting sea ice, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 2515–2518, https://doi.org/10.1029/97GL02596, 1997. a
Sedwick, P. N., Marsay, C. M., Sohst, B. M., Aguilar-Islas, A. M., Lohan, M. C., Long, M. C., Arrigo, K. R., Dunbar, R. B., Saito, M. A., Smith, W. O., and Ditullio, G. R.: Early season depletion of dissolved iron in the Ross Sea polynya: Implications for iron dynamics on the Antarctic continental shelf, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 116, C12019, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006553, 2011. a
Séférian, R., Berthet, S., Yool, A., Palmiéri, J., Bopp, L., Tagliabue, A., Kwiatkowski, L., Aumont, O., Christian, J., Dunne, J., Gehlen, M., Ilyina, T., John, J. G., Li, H., Long, M. C., Luo, J. Y., Nakano, H., Romanou, A., Schwinger, J., Stock, C., Santana-Falcón, Y., Takano, Y., Tjiputra, J., Tsujino, H., Watanabe, M., Wu, T., Wu, F., and Yamamoto, A.: Tracking Improvement in Simulated Marine Biogeochemistry Between CMIP5 and CMIP6, Current Climate Change Reports, 6, 95–119, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-020-00160-0, 2020. a
Sigman, D. M., Hain, M. P., and Haug, G. H.: The polar ocean and glacial cycles in atmospheric CO2 concentration, Nature, 466, 47–55, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09149, 2010. a, b
Silsbe, G. M., Behrenfeld, M. J., Halsey, K. H., Milligan, A. J., and Westberry, T. K.: The CAFE model: A net production model for global ocean phytoplankton, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 30, 1756–1777, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005521, 2016. a, b, c, d
Smetacek, V., Assmy, P., and Henjes, J.: The role of grazing in structuring Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles, Antarct. Sci., 16, 541–558, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954102004002317, 2004. a, b
Smith, W. O. and Comiso, J. C.: Influence of sea ice on primary production in the Southern Ocean: A satellite perspective, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 113, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004251, 2008. a, b
Speer, K. G. and Dittmar, T.: Cruise report, RV Revelle, 33RR20080204, Tech. rep., Florida State University, 2008. a
Swart, S., Plessis, M. D., Thompson, A. F., Biddle, L. C., Giddy, I., Linders, T., Mohrmann, M., and Nicholson, S.: Submesoscale Fronts in the Antarctic Marginal Ice Zone and Their Response to Wind Forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2019GL086649, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086649, 2020. a
Takao, S., Nakaoka, S. I., Hashihama, F., Shimada, K., Yoshikawa-Inoue, H., Hirawake, T., Kanda, J., Hashida, G., and Suzuki, K.: Effects of phytoplankton community composition and productivity on sea surface pCO2 variations in the Southern Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 160, 103263, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2020.103263, 2020. a
Taylor, M. H., Losch, M., and Bracher, A.: On the drivers of phytoplankton blooms in the Antarctic marginal ice zone: A modeling approach, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 118, 63–75, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JC008418, 2013. a, b, c
Thomalla, S. J., Ogunkoya, A. G., Vichi, M., and Swart, S.: Using optical sensors on gliders to estimate phytoplankton carbon concentrations and chlorophyll-to-carbon ratios in the Southern Ocean, Front. Mar. Sci., 4, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.3389/FMARS.2017.00034, 2017. a, b
Trebilco, R., Melbourne-Thomas, J., and Constable, A. J.: The policy relevance of Southern Ocean food web structure: Implications of food web change for fisheries, conservation and carbon sequestration, Mar. Policy, 115, 103832, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103832, 2020. a
Trimborn, S., Thoms, S., Bischof, K., and Beszteri, S.: Susceptibility of Two Southern Ocean Phytoplankton Key Species to Iron Limitation and High Light, Front. Mar. Sci., 6, 167, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00167, 2019. a
Twelves, A. G., Goldberg, D. N., Henley, S. F., Mazloff, M. R., and Jones, D. C.: Self-Shading and Meltwater Spreading Control the Transition From Light to Iron Limitation in an Antarctic Coastal Polynya, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 126, e2020JC016636, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JC016636, 2021. a, b, c, d, e, f, g
Uchida, T., Balwada, D., Abernathey, R., Prend, C. J., Boss, E., and Gille, S. T.: Southern Ocean Phytoplankton Blooms Observed by Biogeochemical Floats, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 7328–7343, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015355, 2019. a
Van Heuven, S. M., Hoppema, M., Jones, E. M., and De Baar, H. J.: Rapid invasion of anthropogenic CO2 into the deep circulation of the Weddell Gyre, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 372, 20130056, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0056, 2014. a, b
Vernet, M., Geibert, W., Hoppema, M., Brown, P. J., Haas, C., Hellmer, H. H., Jokat, W., Jullion, L., Mazloff, M., Bakker, D. C., Brearley, J. A., Croot, P., Hattermann, T., Hauck, J., Hillenbrand, C. D., Hoppe, C. J., Huhn, O., Koch, B. P., Lechtenfeld, O. J., Meredith, M. P., Naveira Garabato, A. C., Nöthig, E. M., Peeken, I., Rutgers van der Loeff, M. M., Schmidtko, S., Schröder, M., Strass, V. H., Torres-Valdés, S., and Verdy, A.: The Weddell Gyre, Southern Ocean: Present Knowledge and Future Challenges, Rev. Geophys., 57, 623–708, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018RG000604, 2019. a, b, c, d, e, f
von Berg, L., Prend, C. J., Campbell, E. C., Mazloff, M. R., Talley, L. D., and Gille, S. T.: Weddell Sea Phytoplankton Blooms Modulated by Sea Ice Variability and Polynya Formation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL087954, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087954, 2020. a, b, c, d
Westberry, T., Behrenfeld, M. J., Siegel, D. A., Boss, E., and Westberry, C.: Carbon-based primary productivity modeling with vertically resolved photoacclimation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 22, GB2024, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GB003078, 2008. a
Westberry, T. K. and Behrenfeld, M. J.: Oceanic net primary production, in: Biophysical Applications of Satellite Remote Sensing, edited by: Hanes, J. M., chap. 8, 205–230, Springer, Berlin, Germany, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25047-7_8, 2013. a
Westberry, T. K., Silsbe, G. M., and Behrenfeld, M. J.: Gross and net primary production in the global ocean: An ocean color remote sensing perspective, Earth-Sci. Rev., 237, 104322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104322, 2023. a, b
Windnagel, A. K., Meier, W. N., Stewart, J. S., Fetterer, F., and Stafford, T.: NOAA/NSIDC Climate Data Record of Passive Microwave Sea Ice Concentration, Version 4, NSIDC Special Report 20, Boulder CO, https://nsidc.org/data/g02202/versions/4#anchor-1 (last access: 25 April 2022), 2021. a
Short summary
We use data from satellites and robotic floats to assess what drives year-to-year variability in primary production in the Weddell Gyre. We find that the maximum area of ice-free water in the summer is important in determining the total primary production in the region but that areas that are ice free for longer than 120 d become nutrient limited. This has potential implications for ecosystem health in a warming world, where a decline in sea ice cover will affect total primary production.
We use data from satellites and robotic floats to assess what drives year-to-year variability in...
