Articles | Volume 18, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-979-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-979-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
06 Jul 2022
Research article |
| 06 Jul 2022
| 06 Jul 2022
Nonlocal and local wind forcing dependence of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and its depth scale
Tim Rohrschneider
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Ocean department, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
International Max Planck Research School on Earth System Modelling, Hamburg, Germany
Johanna Baehr
Institute of Oceanography, Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
Veit Lüschow
Ocean department, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Dian Putrasahan
Ocean department, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Jochem Marotzke
Ocean department, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
Related authors
Tim Rohrschneider, Jonah Bloch-Johnson, and Maria Rugenstein
Earth Syst. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-2021-86, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-2021-86, 2021
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
We question whether the timescale of long-term climate change is independent of temperature or forcing and the evolution of time. The timescale of long-term climate change depends on feedback temperature dependence and the evolution of time.
Laura Schaffer, Andreas Boesch, Johanna Baehr, and Tim Kruschke
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3144, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3144, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a simple yet effective model to predict storm surges in the German Bight, using wind data and a multiple linear regression approach. Trained on historical data from 1959 to 2022, our storm surge model demonstrates high predictive skill and performs as well as more complex models, despite its simplicity. It can predict both moderate and extreme storm surges, making it a valuable tool for future climate change studies.
Daniel Krieger, Sebastian Brune, Johanna Baehr, and Ralf Weisse
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 1539–1554, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1539-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1539-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Previous studies found that climate models can predict storm activity in the German Bight well for averages of 5–10 years but struggle in predicting the next winter season. Here, we improve winter storm activity predictions by linking them to physical phenomena that occur before the winter. We guess the winter storm activity from these phenomena and discard model solutions that stray too far from the guess. The remaining solutions then show much higher prediction skill for storm activity.
Bjorn Stevens, Stefan Adami, Tariq Ali, Hartwig Anzt, Zafer Aslan, Sabine Attinger, Jaana Bäck, Johanna Baehr, Peter Bauer, Natacha Bernier, Bob Bishop, Hendryk Bockelmann, Sandrine Bony, Guy Brasseur, David N. Bresch, Sean Breyer, Gilbert Brunet, Pier Luigi Buttigieg, Junji Cao, Christelle Castet, Yafang Cheng, Ayantika Dey Choudhury, Deborah Coen, Susanne Crewell, Atish Dabholkar, Qing Dai, Francisco Doblas-Reyes, Dale Durran, Ayoub El Gaidi, Charlie Ewen, Eleftheria Exarchou, Veronika Eyring, Florencia Falkinhoff, David Farrell, Piers M. Forster, Ariane Frassoni, Claudia Frauen, Oliver Fuhrer, Shahzad Gani, Edwin Gerber, Debra Goldfarb, Jens Grieger, Nicolas Gruber, Wilco Hazeleger, Rolf Herken, Chris Hewitt, Torsten Hoefler, Huang-Hsiung Hsu, Daniela Jacob, Alexandra Jahn, Christian Jakob, Thomas Jung, Christopher Kadow, In-Sik Kang, Sarah Kang, Karthik Kashinath, Katharina Kleinen-von Königslöw, Daniel Klocke, Uta Kloenne, Milan Klöwer, Chihiro Kodama, Stefan Kollet, Tobias Kölling, Jenni Kontkanen, Steve Kopp, Michal Koran, Markku Kulmala, Hanna Lappalainen, Fakhria Latifi, Bryan Lawrence, June Yi Lee, Quentin Lejeun, Christian Lessig, Chao Li, Thomas Lippert, Jürg Luterbacher, Pekka Manninen, Jochem Marotzke, Satoshi Matsouoka, Charlotte Merchant, Peter Messmer, Gero Michel, Kristel Michielsen, Tomoki Miyakawa, Jens Müller, Ramsha Munir, Sandeep Narayanasetti, Ousmane Ndiaye, Carlos Nobre, Achim Oberg, Riko Oki, Tuba Özkan-Haller, Tim Palmer, Stan Posey, Andreas Prein, Odessa Primus, Mike Pritchard, Julie Pullen, Dian Putrasahan, Johannes Quaas, Krishnan Raghavan, Venkatachalam Ramaswamy, Markus Rapp, Florian Rauser, Markus Reichstein, Aromar Revi, Sonakshi Saluja, Masaki Satoh, Vera Schemann, Sebastian Schemm, Christina Schnadt Poberaj, Thomas Schulthess, Cath Senior, Jagadish Shukla, Manmeet Singh, Julia Slingo, Adam Sobel, Silvina Solman, Jenna Spitzer, Philip Stier, Thomas Stocker, Sarah Strock, Hang Su, Petteri Taalas, John Taylor, Susann Tegtmeier, Georg Teutsch, Adrian Tompkins, Uwe Ulbrich, Pier-Luigi Vidale, Chien-Ming Wu, Hao Xu, Najibullah Zaki, Laure Zanna, Tianjun Zhou, and Florian Ziemen
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 2113–2122, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2113-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2113-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
To manage Earth in the Anthropocene, new tools, new institutions, and new forms of international cooperation will be required. Earth Virtualization Engines is proposed as an international federation of centers of excellence to empower all people to respond to the immense and urgent challenges posed by climate change.
Jin-Song von Storch, Eileen Hertwig, Veit Lüschow, Nils Brüggemann, Helmuth Haak, Peter Korn, and Vikram Singh
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5179–5196, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5179-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5179-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The new ocean general circulation model ICON-O is developed for running experiments at kilometer scales and beyond. One targeted application is to simulate internal tides crucial for ocean mixing. To ensure their realism, which is difficult to assess, we evaluate the barotropic tides that generate internal tides. We show that ICON-O is able to realistically simulate the major aspects of the observed barotropic tides and discuss the aspects that impact the quality of the simulated tides.
Julianna Carvalho-Oliveira, Giorgia di Capua, Leonard Borchert, Reik Donner, and Johanna Baehr
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1412, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1412, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate with a causality analysis that an important recurrent summer atmospheric pattern, the so-called East Atlantic teleconnection, is influenced by the extratropical North Atlantic in spring during the second half of the 20th century. This causal link is, however, not well represented by our evaluated seasonal climate prediction system. We show that simulations able to reproduce this link show improved surface climate prediction credibility over those that do not.
Cathy Hohenegger, Peter Korn, Leonidas Linardakis, René Redler, Reiner Schnur, Panagiotis Adamidis, Jiawei Bao, Swantje Bastin, Milad Behravesh, Martin Bergemann, Joachim Biercamp, Hendryk Bockelmann, Renate Brokopf, Nils Brüggemann, Lucas Casaroli, Fatemeh Chegini, George Datseris, Monika Esch, Geet George, Marco Giorgetta, Oliver Gutjahr, Helmuth Haak, Moritz Hanke, Tatiana Ilyina, Thomas Jahns, Johann Jungclaus, Marcel Kern, Daniel Klocke, Lukas Kluft, Tobias Kölling, Luis Kornblueh, Sergey Kosukhin, Clarissa Kroll, Junhong Lee, Thorsten Mauritsen, Carolin Mehlmann, Theresa Mieslinger, Ann Kristin Naumann, Laura Paccini, Angel Peinado, Divya Sri Praturi, Dian Putrasahan, Sebastian Rast, Thomas Riddick, Niklas Roeber, Hauke Schmidt, Uwe Schulzweida, Florian Schütte, Hans Segura, Radomyra Shevchenko, Vikram Singh, Mia Specht, Claudia Christine Stephan, Jin-Song von Storch, Raphaela Vogel, Christian Wengel, Marius Winkler, Florian Ziemen, Jochem Marotzke, and Bjorn Stevens
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 779–811, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-779-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-779-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Models of the Earth system used to understand climate and predict its change typically employ a grid spacing of about 100 km. Yet, many atmospheric and oceanic processes occur on much smaller scales. In this study, we present a new model configuration designed for the simulation of the components of the Earth system and their interactions at kilometer and smaller scales, allowing an explicit representation of the main drivers of the flow of energy and matter by solving the underlying equations.
Daniel Krieger, Sebastian Brune, Patrick Pieper, Ralf Weisse, and Johanna Baehr
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 3993–4009, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3993-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3993-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Accurate predictions of storm activity are desirable for coastal management. We investigate how well a climate model can predict storm activity in the German Bight 1–10 years in advance. We let the model predict the past, compare these predictions to observations, and analyze whether the model is doing better than simple statistical predictions. We find that the model generally shows good skill for extreme periods, but the prediction timeframes with good skill depend on the type of prediction.
Yiyu Zheng, Maria Rugenstein, Patrick Pieper, Goratz Beobide-Arsuaga, and Johanna Baehr
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 1611–1623, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1611-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1611-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is one of the dominant climatic phenomena in the equatorial Pacific. Understanding and predicting how ENSO might change in a warmer climate is both societally and scientifically important. We use 1000-year-long simulations from seven climate models to analyze ENSO in an idealized stable climate. We show that ENSO will be weaker and last shorter under the warming, while the skill of ENSO prediction will unlikely change.
Lennart Ramme and Jochem Marotzke
Clim. Past, 18, 759–774, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-759-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-759-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
After the Marinoan snowball Earth, the climate warmed rapidly due to enhanced greenhouse conditions, and the freshwater inflow of melting glaciers caused a strong stratification of the ocean. Our climate simulations reveal a potentially only moderate global temperature increase and a break-up of the stratification within just a few thousand years. The findings give insights into the environmental conditions relevant for the geological and biological evolution during that time.
Eduardo Moreno-Chamarro, Louis-Philippe Caron, Saskia Loosveldt Tomas, Javier Vegas-Regidor, Oliver Gutjahr, Marie-Pierre Moine, Dian Putrasahan, Christopher D. Roberts, Malcolm J. Roberts, Retish Senan, Laurent Terray, Etienne Tourigny, and Pier Luigi Vidale
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 269–289, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-269-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-269-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Climate models do not fully reproduce observations: they show differences (biases) in regional temperature, precipitation, or cloud cover. Reducing model biases is important to increase our confidence in their ability to reproduce present and future climate changes. Model realism is set by its resolution: the finer it is, the more physical processes and interactions it can resolve. We here show that increasing resolution of up to ~ 25 km can help reduce model biases but not remove them entirely.
Tim Rohrschneider, Jonah Bloch-Johnson, and Maria Rugenstein
Earth Syst. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-2021-86, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-2021-86, 2021
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
We question whether the timescale of long-term climate change is independent of temperature or forcing and the evolution of time. The timescale of long-term climate change depends on feedback temperature dependence and the evolution of time.
Marcel Meyer, Iuliia Polkova, Kameswar Rao Modali, Laura Schaffer, Johanna Baehr, Stephan Olbrich, and Marc Rautenhaus
Weather Clim. Dynam., 2, 867–891, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-867-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-867-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Novel techniques from computer science are used to study extreme weather events. Inspired by the interactive 3-D visual analysis of the recently released ERA5 reanalysis data, we improve commonly used metrics for measuring polar winter storms and outbreaks of cold air. The software (Met.3D) that we have extended and applied as part of this study is freely available and can be used generically for 3-D visualization of a broad variety of atmospheric processes in weather and climate data.
Julianna Carvalho-Oliveira, Leonard Friedrich Borchert, Aurélie Duchez, Mikhail Dobrynin, and Johanna Baehr
Weather Clim. Dynam., 2, 739–757, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-739-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-739-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This work questions the influence of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, an important component of the climate system, on the variability in North Atlantic sea surface temperature (SST) a season ahead, particularly how this influence affects SST prediction credibility 2–4 months into the future. While we find this relationship is relevant for assessing SST predictions, it strongly depends on the time period and season we analyse and is more subtle than what is found in observations.
Oliver Gutjahr, Nils Brüggemann, Helmuth Haak, Johann H. Jungclaus, Dian A. Putrasahan, Katja Lohmann, and Jin-Song von Storch
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 2317–2349, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-2317-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-2317-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We compare four ocean vertical mixing schemes in 100-year coupled simulations with the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model (MPI-ESM1.2) and analyse their model biases. Overall, the mixing schemes modify biases in the ocean interior that vary with region and variable but produce a similar global bias pattern. We therefore cannot classify any scheme as superior but conclude that the chosen mixing scheme may be important for regional biases.
Marie-Estelle Demory, Ségolène Berthou, Jesús Fernández, Silje L. Sørland, Roman Brogli, Malcolm J. Roberts, Urs Beyerle, Jon Seddon, Rein Haarsma, Christoph Schär, Erasmo Buonomo, Ole B. Christensen, James M. Ciarlo ̀, Rowan Fealy, Grigory Nikulin, Daniele Peano, Dian Putrasahan, Christopher D. Roberts, Retish Senan, Christian Steger, Claas Teichmann, and Robert Vautard
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5485–5506, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5485-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5485-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Now that global climate models (GCMs) can run at similar resolutions to regional climate models (RCMs), one may wonder whether GCMs and RCMs provide similar regional climate information. We perform an evaluation for daily precipitation distribution in PRIMAVERA GCMs (25–50 km resolution) and CORDEX RCMs (12–50 km resolution) over Europe. We show that PRIMAVERA and CORDEX simulate similar distributions. Considering both datasets at such a resolution results in large benefits for impact studies.
Hilla Afargan-Gerstman, Iuliia Polkova, Lukas Papritz, Paolo Ruggieri, Martin P. King, Panos J. Athanasiadis, Johanna Baehr, and Daniela I. V. Domeisen
Weather Clim. Dynam., 1, 541–553, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-1-541-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-1-541-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the stratospheric influence on marine cold air outbreaks (MCAOs) in the North Atlantic using ERA-Interim reanalysis data. MCAOs are associated with severe Arctic weather, such as polar lows and strong surface winds. Sudden stratospheric events are found to be associated with more frequent MCAOs in the Barents and the Norwegian seas, affected by the anomalous circulation over Greenland and Scandinavia. Identification of MCAO precursors is crucial for improved long-range prediction.
Rita Glowienka-Hense, Andreas Hense, Sebastian Brune, and Johanna Baehr
Adv. Stat. Clim. Meteorol. Oceanogr., 6, 103–113, https://doi.org/10.5194/ascmo-6-103-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/ascmo-6-103-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A new method for weather and climate forecast model evaluation with respect to observations is proposed. Individually added values are estimated for each model, together with shared information both models provide equally on the observations. Finally, shared model information, which is not present in the observations, is calculated. The method is applied to two examples from climate and weather forecasting, showing new perspectives for model evaluation.
Patrick Pieper, André Düsterhus, and Johanna Baehr
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4541–4565, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4541-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4541-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a widely accepted drought index. SPI normalizes the precipitation distribution via a probability density function (PDF). However, which PDF properly normalizes SPI is still disputed. We suggest using a previously mostly overlooked PDF, namely the exponentiated Weibull distribution. The proposed PDF ensures the normality of the index. We demonstrate this – for the first time – for all common accumulation periods in both observations and simulations.
Flavio Lehner, Clara Deser, Nicola Maher, Jochem Marotzke, Erich M. Fischer, Lukas Brunner, Reto Knutti, and Ed Hawkins
Earth Syst. Dynam., 11, 491–508, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-11-491-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-11-491-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Projections of climate change are uncertain because climate models are imperfect, future greenhouse gases emissions are unknown and climate is to some extent chaotic. To partition and understand these sources of uncertainty and make the best use of climate projections, large ensembles with multiple climate models are needed. Such ensembles now exist in a public data archive. We provide several novel applications focused on global and regional temperature and precipitation projections.
Oliver Gutjahr, Dian Putrasahan, Katja Lohmann, Johann H. Jungclaus, Jin-Song von Storch, Nils Brüggemann, Helmuth Haak, and Achim Stössel
Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 3241–3281, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-3241-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-3241-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We analyse how climatic mean states of the atmosphere and ocean change with increasing the horizontal model resolution of the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model (MPI-ESM1.2) and how they are affected by the representation of vertical mixing in the ocean. It is in particular a high-resolution ocean that reduces biases not only in the ocean but also in the atmosphere. The vertical mixing scheme affects the strength and stability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC).
Matthias Fischer, Daniela I. V. Domeisen, Wolfgang A. Müller, and Johanna Baehr
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 129–146, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-129-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-129-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
In a climate projection experiment with the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model (MPI-ESM), we find that a decline in the Atlantic Ocean meridional heat transport (OHT) is accompanied by a change in the seasonal cycle of the total OHT and its components. We found a northward shift of 5° and latitude-dependent shifts between 1 and 6 months in the seasonal cycle that are mainly associated with changes in the meridional velocity field rather than the temperature field.
Marlene Klockmann, Uwe Mikolajewicz, and Jochem Marotzke
Clim. Past, 12, 1829–1846, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-1829-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-1829-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We study the response of the glacial AMOC to different forcings in a coupled AOGCM. The depth of the upper overturning cell remains almost unchanged in response to the full glacial forcing. This is the result of two opposing effects: a deepening due to the ice sheets and a shoaling due to the low GHG concentrations. Increased brine release in the Southern Ocean is key to the shoaling. With glacial ice sheets, a shallower cell can be simulated with GHG concentrations below the glacial level.
J. Baehr and R. Piontek
Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 453–461, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-453-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-453-2014, 2014
S. Tietsche, D. Notz, J. H. Jungclaus, and J. Marotzke
Ocean Sci., 9, 19–36, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-19-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-19-2013, 2013
Cited articles
Allison, L. C., Johnson, H. L., and Marshall, D. P.: Spin-up and adjustment of
the Antarctic circumpolar current and global pycnocline, J. Mar.
Res., 69, 167–189, https://doi.org/10.1357/002224011798765330, 2011. a
Baehr, J., Hirschi, J., Beismann, J. O., and Marotzke, J.: Monitoring the
meridional overturning circulation in the North Atlantic: a model-based array
design study, J. Mar. Res., 62, 283–312,
https://doi.org/10.1357/0022240041446191, 2004. a
Baehr, J., Stroup, A., and Marotzke, J.: Testing concepts for continuous
monitoring of the meridional overturning circulation in the South Atlantic,
Ocean Modell., 29, 147–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2009.03.005, 2009. a
Cabanes, C., Lee, T., and Fu, L.-L.: Mechanims of Interannual Variations of the
Meridional Overturning Circulation of the North Atlantic Ocean, J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 38, 467–480, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JPO3726.1, 2008. a, b
Cessi, P.: The Effect of Northern Hemisphere Winds on the Meridional
Overturning Circulation and Stratification, J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
48, 2495–2506, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-18-0085.1, 2018. a
DeBoer, A. M., Gnanadesikan, A., Edwards, N. L., and Watson, A. J.: Meridional
Density Gradients Do Not Control the Atlantic Overturning Circulation,
J. Oceanogr., 40, 368–380, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JPO4200.1, 2010. a, b, c
Gent, P. R., Willebrand, J., McDougall, T. J., and McWilliams, J. C.:
Parameterizing Eddy-Induced Tracer Transports in Ocean Circulation Models,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 463–474,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<0463:PEITTI>2.0.CO;2, 1995. a
Gnanadesikan, A.: A Simple Predictive Model for the Structure of the Oceanic
Pycnocline, Science, 283, 2077–2079, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5410.2077,
1999. a, b, c
Gnanadesikan, A., DeBoer, A. M., and Mignone, B. K.: A Simple Theory of the
Pycnocline and Overturning Revisited, Ocean Circulation: Mechanisms and
Impacts, Geophys. Monogr. Seri., 173, 19–32, https://doi.org/10.1029/173GM04, 2007. a
Griesel, A. and Maqueda, M. A. M.: The relation of meridional pressure
gradients to North Atlantic deep water volume transport in an ocean general
circulation model, Clim. Dynam., 26, 781–799,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-006-0122-z, 2006. a, b
Hirschi, J. and Marotzke, J.: Reconstructing the meridionaloverturning
circulation from boundary densities and the zonal wind stress, J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 47, 743–763, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO3019.1, 2007. a, b
Hirschi, J., Baehr, J., Marotzke, J., Stark, J., Cunningham, S., and Beismann,
J. O.: A monitoring design for the Atlantic meridional overturning
circulation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1413, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016776,
2003. a
Jayne, S. R. and Marotzke, J.: The dynamics of ocean heat transport
variability, Rev. Geophys., 39, 385–411, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000RG000084,
2001. a
Johnson, H. L., Cessi, P., Marshall, D. P., Schloesser, F., and Spall, M. A.:
Recent Contributions of Theory to Our Understanding of the Atlantic
Meridional Overturning Circulation, J. Geophys. Res., 124,
5376–539, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015330, 2019. a
Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D.,
Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G., Woollen, J., Zhu, Y.,
Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo, K. C.,
Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Leetmaa, A., Reynolds, R., Jenne, R., and
Joseph, D.: The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project, Bull.
Am. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 347–471,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0437:TNYRP>2.0.CO;2, 2018. a
Klinger, B. A. and Cruz, C.: Decadal Response of Global Circulation to Southern
Ocean Zonal Wind Stress Perturbation, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 39,
1888–1904, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JPO4070.1, 2009. a, b, c
Klinger, B. A., Drijfhout, S., Marotzke, J., and Scott, J. R.: Sensitivity of
Basinwide Meridional Overturning to Diapycnal Diffusion and Remote Wind
Forcing in an Idealized Atlantic–Southern Ocean Geometry, J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 33, 249–266,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033<0249:SOBMOT>2.0.CO;2, 2003. a, b
Klinger, B. A., Drijfhout, S., Marotzke, J., and Scott, J. R.: Remote
Wind-Driven Overturning in the Absence of the Drake Passage Effect, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 1036–1049,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1036:RWOITA>2.0.CO;2, 2004. a, b
Levermann, A. and Fuerst, J. J.: Atlantic pycnocline theory scrutinized using a
coupled climate model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L14602,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044180, 2010. a, b
Luyten, J. R., Pedlosky, J., and Stommel, H.: The ventilated Thermocline,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 292–309,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<0292:TVT>2.0.CO;2, 1983. a
Lüschow, V., von Storch, J.-S., and Marotzke, J.: Overturning response to a
doubling of the surface wind stress in an eddying and a non-eddying ocean,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 51, 1007–1020,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-20-0176.1, 2021. a, b, c
Marotzke, J.: Boundary Mixing and the Dynamics of Three-Dimensional
Thermohaline Circulations, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 27, 1713–1728,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<1713:BMATDO>2.0.CO;2, 1997. a, b
Marotzke, J. and Klinger, B. A.: The Dynamics of Equatorially Asymmetric
Thermohaline Circulations, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30, 955–968,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2000)030<0955:TDOEAT>2.0.CO;2, 2000. a
Marshall, D. P. and Johnson, H. L.: Relative strength of the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current and Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, Tellus
A, 69, 1338884,
https://doi.org/10.1080/16000870.2017.1338884, 2017.
a
Marshall, J. and Speer, K.: Closure of the meridional overturning circulation
through Southern Ocean upwelling, Nat. Geosci., 5, 171–180,
https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1391, 2012. a
McCreary, J. P. and Lu, P.: Interaction between the Subtropical and Equatorial
Ocean Circulations: The Subtropical Cell, J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
24, 466–497, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1994)024<0466:IBTSAE>2.0.CO;2, 1994. a, b
Moreno-Chamarro, E., Ortega, P., Gonzalez-Rouco, F., and Montoya, M.:
Assessing reconstruction techniques of the Atlantic Ocean circulation
variability during the last millennium, Clim. Dynam., 48, 799–819,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3111-x, 2016. a
Munk, W. and Wunsch, C.: Abyssal recipes II: energetics of tidal and wind
mixing, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 45,
1977–2010, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00070-3, 1998. a
Rohrschneider, T., Baehr, J., Lüschow, V., Putrasahan, D., and Marotzke, J.: The depth scales of the AMOC on a decadal timescale, MPG.PuRe [data set], http://hdl.handle.net/21.11116/0000-0007-D24C-7, last access: 4 July 2022. a
Robinson, A. and Stommel, H.: The Oceanic Thermocline and the Associated
Thermohaline Circulation, Tellus A, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2153-3490.1959.tb00035.x,
1959. a
Scott, J. R.: The Roles of Mixing, Geothermal Heating, and Surface Buoyancy
Forcing in Ocean Meridional Overturning Dynamics, PhD thesis, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 2000. a
Shakespeare, C. J. and Hogg, A. M.: An Analytical Model of the Response of the
Meridional Overturning Circulation to Changes in Wind and Buoyancy Forcing,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 42, 1270–1287,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-11-0198.1, 2012. a
Toggweiler, J. R. and Samuels, B.: Effect of Drake Passage on the global
thermohaline circulation, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 42, 477–500, https://doi.org/10.1016/0967-0637(95)00012-U, 1995. a
Tsujino, H. and Suginohara, N.: Thermohaline Circulation Enhanced by Wind
Forcing, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 29, 1506–1516,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033<0249:SOBMOT>2.0.CO;2, 1998. a
Vallis, G. K.: Large-Scale Circulation and Production of Stratification:
Effects of Wind, Geometry, and Diffusion, J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
30, 933–953, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<1713:BMATDO>2.0.CO;2, 2000. a, b, c
von Storch, J.-S., Eden, C., Fast, I., Haak, H., Deckers, D., Maier-Reimer, E.,
Marotzke, J., and Stammer, D.: An Estimate of the Lorenz Energy Cycle for the
World Ocean Based on the
Welander, P.: An advective model of the ocean thermocline, Tellus A,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2153-3490.1959.tb00036.x, 1959. a
Williams, R. G. and Roussenov, V.: Decadal Evolution of Ocean Thermal Anomalies
in the North Atlantic: The Effects of Ekman, Overturning, and Horizontal
Transport, J. Clim., 27, 698–719, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00234.1,
2014. a, b
Wolfe, C. L. and Cessi, P.: The Adiabatic Pole-to-Pole Overturning Circulation,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 41, 1705–1810,
https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JPO4570.1, 2011. a
Short summary
This paper presents an analysis of wind sensitivity experiments in order to provide insight into the wind forcing dependence of the AMOC by understanding the behavior of its depth scale(s).
This paper presents an analysis of wind sensitivity experiments in order to provide insight into...
