Articles | Volume 15, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1783-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1783-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
17 Dec 2019
Research article |
| 17 Dec 2019
| 17 Dec 2019
Air–sea gas exchange at wind speeds up to 85 m s−1
Kerstin E. Krall
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute of Environmental Physics, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 229, 69120 Heidelberg,
Germany
Andrew W. Smith
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
Naohisa Takagaki
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hyogo, Himeji 671-2280, Japan
Bernd Jähne
Institute of Environmental Physics, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 229, 69120 Heidelberg,
Germany
Heidelberg Collaboratory for Image Processing,
Heidelberg University, Berliner Straße 43, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Cited
16 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Annual Variability of CO2 Flux at the Carbon Polygon in the Northeastern Black Sea A. Polukhin et al. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X25609319
- Air-Sea Trace Gas Fluxes: Direct and Indirect Measurements C. Fairall et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.826606
- Deciphering the variability in air-sea gas transfer due to sea state and wind history M. Yang et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae389
- An assessment of air-sea CO2 flux parameterizations during tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal T. Bhattacharya et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dynatmoce.2023.101390
- A universal wind–wave–bubble formulation for air–sea gas exchange and its impact on oxygen fluxes L. Deike et al. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2419319122
- Fetch effects on air-sea momentum transfer at very high wind speeds N. Takagaki et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/21664250.2023.2244751
- A Sea State Dependent Gas Transfer Velocity for CO2 Unifying Theory, Model, and Field Data X. Zhou et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA003237
- Influences of Antarctic Ozone Depletion on Southern Ocean Aerosols Y. Bhatti et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD037199
- Gas Fluxes and Steady State Saturation Anomalies at Very High Wind Speeds R. Stanley et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC018387
- Tropical cyclone–induced upper-ocean dissolved oxygen variability and its physical and biological controls in the North Indian Ocean T. Bhattacharya et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2026.104208
- Using global reanalysis data to quantify and correct airflow distortion bias in shipborne wind speed measurements S. Landwehr et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-3487-2020
- Enhancing air–sea CO2 exchange and modulating seawater carbonate–pH dynamics: the role of wave effect mechanisms in the POP2–waves coupled model Y. Lan et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-7479-2026
- Unraveling the Contribution of Turbulence and Bubbles to Air‐Water Gas Exchange in Running Waters M. Klaus et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JG006520
- Laboratory experiments on CO2 gas exchange with wave breaking S. Li et al. https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-20-0272.1
- Effects of current on wind waves in strong winds N. Takagaki et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-1033-2020
- Global Synthesis of Air-Sea CO2 Transfer Velocity Estimates From Ship-Based Eddy Covariance Measurements M. Yang et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.826421
16 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Annual Variability of CO2 Flux at the Carbon Polygon in the Northeastern Black Sea A. Polukhin et al. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X25609319
- Air-Sea Trace Gas Fluxes: Direct and Indirect Measurements C. Fairall et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.826606
- Deciphering the variability in air-sea gas transfer due to sea state and wind history M. Yang et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae389
- An assessment of air-sea CO2 flux parameterizations during tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal T. Bhattacharya et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dynatmoce.2023.101390
- A universal wind–wave–bubble formulation for air–sea gas exchange and its impact on oxygen fluxes L. Deike et al. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2419319122
- Fetch effects on air-sea momentum transfer at very high wind speeds N. Takagaki et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/21664250.2023.2244751
- A Sea State Dependent Gas Transfer Velocity for CO2 Unifying Theory, Model, and Field Data X. Zhou et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023EA003237
- Influences of Antarctic Ozone Depletion on Southern Ocean Aerosols Y. Bhatti et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD037199
- Gas Fluxes and Steady State Saturation Anomalies at Very High Wind Speeds R. Stanley et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC018387
- Tropical cyclone–induced upper-ocean dissolved oxygen variability and its physical and biological controls in the North Indian Ocean T. Bhattacharya et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2026.104208
- Using global reanalysis data to quantify and correct airflow distortion bias in shipborne wind speed measurements S. Landwehr et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-3487-2020
- Enhancing air–sea CO2 exchange and modulating seawater carbonate–pH dynamics: the role of wave effect mechanisms in the POP2–waves coupled model Y. Lan et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-7479-2026
- Unraveling the Contribution of Turbulence and Bubbles to Air‐Water Gas Exchange in Running Waters M. Klaus et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JG006520
- Laboratory experiments on CO2 gas exchange with wave breaking S. Li et al. https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-20-0272.1
- Effects of current on wind waves in strong winds N. Takagaki et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-1033-2020
- Global Synthesis of Air-Sea CO2 Transfer Velocity Estimates From Ship-Based Eddy Covariance Measurements M. Yang et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.826421
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 25 Aug 2026
Short summary
We measured the transfer of 12 gases between air and sea at very high wind speeds in two different wind-wave tank labs with fresh water, simulated seawater and seawater. We separated the transfer across the water surface from the transfer through the surface of bubbles. At high winds, the transfer through the free water surface increases very strongly and bubbles become important but only for gases which are very weakly soluble in water. On the ocean, bubbles might be important at lower winds.
We measured the transfer of 12 gases between air and sea at very high wind speeds in two...
