Articles | Volume 18, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-565-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-565-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
03 May 2022
Research article |
| 03 May 2022
| 03 May 2022
Ocean bubbles under high wind conditions – Part 1: Bubble distribution and development
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London,
London, WC1E 7BT, UK
Ian M. Brooks
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT,
UK
Steve Gunn
University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
Robin Pascal
National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, UK
Adrian Matei
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London,
London, WC1E 7BT, UK
Byron Blomquist
Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences,
University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
NOAA Physical Sciences Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado, USA
Related authors
Helen Czerski, Ian M. Brooks, Steve Gunn, Robin Pascal, Adrian Matei, and Byron Blomquist
Ocean Sci., 18, 587–608, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The bubbles formed by breaking waves at the ocean surface are important because they are thought to speed up the movement of gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and ocean. We collected data on the bubbles in the top few metres of the ocean which were created by storms in the North Atlantic. The focus in this paper is the bubble sizes and their position in the water. We saw that there are very predictable patterns and set out what happens to bubbles after a wave breaks.
Heather Guy, Andrew S. Martin, Erik Olson, Ian M. Brooks, and Ryan R. Neely III
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 11103–11114, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11103-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11103-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Aerosol particles impact cloud properties which influence Greenland Ice Sheet melt. Understanding the aerosol population that interacts with clouds is important for constraining future melt. Measurements of aerosols at cloud height over Greenland are rare, and surface measurements are often used to investigate cloud–aerosol interactions. We use a tethered balloon to measure aerosols up to cloud base and show that surface measurements are often not equivalent to those just below the cloud.
Gillian Young McCusker, Jutta Vüllers, Peggy Achtert, Paul Field, Jonathan J. Day, Richard Forbes, Ruth Price, Ewan O'Connor, Michael Tjernström, John Prytherch, Ryan Neely III, and Ian M. Brooks
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 4819–4847, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4819-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4819-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we show that recent versions of two atmospheric models – the Unified Model and Integrated Forecasting System – overestimate Arctic cloud fraction within the lower troposphere by comparison with recent remote-sensing measurements made during the Arctic Ocean 2018 expedition. The overabundance of cloud is interlinked with the modelled thermodynamic structure, with strong negative temperature biases coincident with these overestimated cloud layers.
Ruth Price, Andrea Baccarini, Julia Schmale, Paul Zieger, Ian M. Brooks, Paul Field, and Ken S. Carslaw
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 2927–2961, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2927-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2927-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic clouds can control how much energy is absorbed by the surface or reflected back to space. Using a computer model of the atmosphere we investigated the formation of atmospheric particles that allow cloud droplets to form. We found that particles formed aloft are transported to the lowest part of the Arctic atmosphere and that this is a key source of particles. Our results have implications for the way Arctic clouds will behave in the future as climate change continues to impact the region.
Heather Guy, David D. Turner, Von P. Walden, Ian M. Brooks, and Ryan R. Neely
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 5095–5115, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5095-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5095-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Fog formation is highly sensitive to near-surface temperatures and humidity profiles. Passive remote sensing instruments can provide continuous measurements of the vertical temperature and humidity profiles and liquid water content, which can improve fog forecasts. Here we compare the performance of collocated infrared and microwave remote sensing instruments and demonstrate that the infrared instrument is especially sensitive to the onset of thin radiation fog.
Helen Czerski, Ian M. Brooks, Steve Gunn, Robin Pascal, Adrian Matei, and Byron Blomquist
Ocean Sci., 18, 587–608, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The bubbles formed by breaking waves at the ocean surface are important because they are thought to speed up the movement of gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and ocean. We collected data on the bubbles in the top few metres of the ocean which were created by storms in the North Atlantic. The focus in this paper is the bubble sizes and their position in the water. We saw that there are very predictable patterns and set out what happens to bubbles after a wave breaks.
Piyush Srivastava, Ian M. Brooks, John Prytherch, Dominic J. Salisbury, Andrew D. Elvidge, Ian A. Renfrew, and Margaret J. Yelland
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 4763–4778, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-4763-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-4763-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The parameterization of surface turbulent fluxes over sea ice remains a weak point in weather forecast and climate models. Recent theoretical developments have introduced more extensive physics but these descriptions are poorly constrained due to a lack of observation data. Here we utilize a large dataset of measurements of turbulent fluxes over sea ice to tune the state-of-the-art parameterization of wind stress, and compare it with a previous scheme.
Heather Guy, Ian M. Brooks, Ken S. Carslaw, Benjamin J. Murray, Von P. Walden, Matthew D. Shupe, Claire Pettersen, David D. Turner, Christopher J. Cox, William D. Neff, Ralf Bennartz, and Ryan R. Neely III
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 15351–15374, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-15351-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-15351-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present the first full year of surface aerosol number concentration measurements from the central Greenland Ice Sheet. Aerosol concentrations here have a distinct seasonal cycle from those at lower-altitude Arctic sites, which is driven by large-scale atmospheric circulation. Our results can be used to help understand the role aerosols might play in Greenland surface melt through the modification of cloud properties. This is crucial in a rapidly changing region where observations are sparse.
Jutta Vüllers, Peggy Achtert, Ian M. Brooks, Michael Tjernström, John Prytherch, Annika Burzik, and Ryan Neely III
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 289–314, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-289-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-289-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This paper provides interesting new results on the thermodynamic structure of the boundary layer, cloud conditions, and fog characteristics in the Arctic during the Arctic Ocean 2018 campaign. It provides information for interpreting further process studies on aerosol–cloud interactions and shows substantial differences in thermodynamic conditions and cloud characteristics based on comparison with previous campaigns. This certainly raises the question of whether it is just an exceptional year.
Peggy Achtert, Ewan J. O'Connor, Ian M. Brooks, Georgia Sotiropoulou, Matthew D. Shupe, Bernhard Pospichal, Barbara J. Brooks, and Michael Tjernström
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 14983–15002, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14983-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14983-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We present observations of precipitating and non-precipitating Arctic liquid and mixed-phase clouds during a research cruise along the Russian shelf in summer and autumn of 2014. Active remote-sensing observations, radiosondes, and auxiliary measurements are combined in the synergistic Cloudnet retrieval. Cloud properties are analysed with respect to cloud-top temperature and boundary layer structure. About 8 % of all liquid clouds show a liquid water path below the infrared black body limit.
Grace C. E. Porter, Sebastien N. F. Sikora, Michael P. Adams, Ulrike Proske, Alexander D. Harrison, Mark D. Tarn, Ian M. Brooks, and Benjamin J. Murray
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 2905–2921, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-2905-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-2905-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Ice-nucleating particles affect cloud development, lifetime, and radiative properties. Hence it is important to know the abundance of INPs throughout the atmosphere. Here we present the development and application of a radio-controlled payload capable of collecting size-resolved aerosol from a tethered balloon for the primary purpose of offline INP analysis. Test data are presented from four locations: southern Finland, northern England, Svalbard, and southern England.
Markus M. Frey, Sarah J. Norris, Ian M. Brooks, Philip S. Anderson, Kouichi Nishimura, Xin Yang, Anna E. Jones, Michelle G. Nerentorp Mastromonaco, David H. Jones, and Eric W. Wolff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 2549–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-2549-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-2549-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
A winter sea ice expedition to Antarctica provided the first direct observations of sea salt aerosol (SSA) production during snow storms above sea ice, thereby validating a model hypothesis to account for winter time SSA maxima in Antarctica not explained otherwise. Defining SSA sources is important given the critical roles that aerosol plays for climate, for air quality and as a potential ice core proxy for sea ice conditions in the past.
Mingxi Yang, Sarah J. Norris, Thomas G. Bell, and Ian M. Brooks
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 15271–15284, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-15271-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-15271-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This work reports direct measurements of sea spray fluxes from a coastal site in the UK, which are relevant for atmospheric chemistry as well as coastal air quality. Sea spray fluxes from this location are roughly an order of magnitude greater than over the open ocean at similar wind conditions, comparable to previous coastal measurements. Unlike previous open ocean measurements that are largely wind speed dependent, we find that sea spray fluxes near the coast depend more strongly on waves.
Xin Yang, Markus M. Frey, Rachael H. Rhodes, Sarah J. Norris, Ian M. Brooks, Philip S. Anderson, Kouichi Nishimura, Anna E. Jones, and Eric W. Wolff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 8407–8424, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-8407-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-8407-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This is a comprehensive model–data comparison aiming to evaluate the proposed mechanism of sea salt aerosol (SSA) production from blowing snow on sea ice. Some key parameters such as snow salinity and blowing-snow size distribution were constrained by data collected in the Weddell Sea. The good agreement between modelled SSA and the cruise data strongly indicates that sea ice surface is a large SSA source in polar regions, a process which has not been considered in current climate models.
Angela Benedetti, Jeffrey S. Reid, Peter Knippertz, John H. Marsham, Francesca Di Giuseppe, Samuel Rémy, Sara Basart, Olivier Boucher, Ian M. Brooks, Laurent Menut, Lucia Mona, Paolo Laj, Gelsomina Pappalardo, Alfred Wiedensohler, Alexander Baklanov, Malcolm Brooks, Peter R. Colarco, Emilio Cuevas, Arlindo da Silva, Jeronimo Escribano, Johannes Flemming, Nicolas Huneeus, Oriol Jorba, Stelios Kazadzis, Stefan Kinne, Thomas Popp, Patricia K. Quinn, Thomas T. Sekiyama, Taichu Tanaka, and Enric Terradellas
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 10615–10643, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-10615-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-10615-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Numerical prediction of aerosol particle properties has become an important activity at many research and operational weather centers. This development is due to growing interest from a diverse set of stakeholders, such as air quality regulatory bodies, aviation authorities, solar energy plant managers, climate service providers, and health professionals. This paper describes the advances in the field and sets out requirements for observations for the sustainability of these activities.
Mingxi Yang, Thomas G. Bell, Frances E. Hopkins, Vassilis Kitidis, Pierre W. Cazenave, Philip D. Nightingale, Margaret J. Yelland, Robin W. Pascal, John Prytherch, Ian M. Brooks, and Timothy J. Smyth
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 5745–5761, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-5745-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-5745-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal seas are sources of methane in the atmosphere and can fluctuate from emitting to absorbing carbon dioxide. Direct air–sea transport measurements of these two greenhouse gases in near shore regions remain scarce. From a recently established coastal atmospheric station on the south-west coast of the UK, we observed that the oceanic absorption of carbon dioxide peaked during the phytoplankton bloom, while methane emission varied with the tidal cycle, likely due to an estuary influence.
Michelle J. Kim, Matthew C. Zoerb, Nicole R. Campbell, Kathryn J. Zimmermann, Byron W. Blomquist, Barry J. Huebert, and Timothy H. Bertram
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 1473–1484, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-1473-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-1473-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Benzene cluster cations were revisited as a sensitive and selective reagent ion for the chemical ionization of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and a select group of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Laboratory and field measurements were used to assess the sensitivity of the ionization scheme under a wide array of operating condition. Underway measurements of DMS in the North Atlantic were validated against an atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometer.
P. Achtert, I. M. Brooks, B. J. Brooks, B. I. Moat, J. Prytherch, P. O. G. Persson, and M. Tjernström
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 4993–5007, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-4993-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-4993-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
Doppler lidar wind measurements were obtained during a 3-month Arctic cruise in summer 2014. Ship-motion effects were compensated by combining a commercial Doppler lidar with a custom-made motion-stabilisation platform. This enables the retrieval of wind profiles in the Arctic boundary layer with uncertainties comparable to land-based lidar measurements and standard radiosondes. The presented set-up has the potential to facilitate continuous ship-based wind profile measurements over the oceans.
J. Prytherch, M. J. Yelland, I. M. Brooks, D. J. Tupman, R. W. Pascal, B. I. Moat, and S. J. Norris
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 10619–10629, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-10619-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-10619-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
Signals at scales associated with wave and platform motion are often apparent in ship-based turbulent flux measurements, but it has been uncertain whether this is due to measurement error or to wind-wave interactions. We show that the signal has a dependence on horizontal ship velocity and that removing the signal reduces the dependence of the momentum flux on the orientation of the ship to the wind. We conclude that the signal is a bias due to time-varying motion-dependent flow distortion.
G. Sotiropoulou, J. Sedlar, M. Tjernström, M. D. Shupe, I. M. Brooks, and P. O. G. Persson
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 12573–12592, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-12573-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-12573-2014, 2014
Short summary
Short summary
During ASCOS, clouds are more frequently decoupled from the surface than coupled to it; when coupling occurs it is primary driven by the cloud. Decoupled clouds have a bimodal structure; they are either weakly or strongly decoupled from the surface; the enhancement of the decoupling is possibly due to sublimation of precipitation. Stable clouds (no cloud-driven mixing) are also observed; those are optically thin, often single-phase liquid, with no or negligible precipitation (e.g. fog).
S. Coburn, I. Ortega, R. Thalman, B. Blomquist, C. W. Fairall, and R. Volkamer
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 7, 3579–3595, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-3579-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-3579-2014, 2014
M. Yang, R. Beale, P. Liss, M. Johnson, B. Blomquist, and P. Nightingale
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 7499–7517, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7499-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7499-2014, 2014
M. Tjernström, C. Leck, C. E. Birch, J. W. Bottenheim, B. J. Brooks, I. M. Brooks, L. Bäcklin, R. Y.-W. Chang, G. de Leeuw, L. Di Liberto, S. de la Rosa, E. Granath, M. Graus, A. Hansel, J. Heintzenberg, A. Held, A. Hind, P. Johnston, J. Knulst, M. Martin, P. A. Matrai, T. Mauritsen, M. Müller, S. J. Norris, M. V. Orellana, D. A. Orsini, J. Paatero, P. O. G. Persson, Q. Gao, C. Rauschenberg, Z. Ristovski, J. Sedlar, M. D. Shupe, B. Sierau, A. Sirevaag, S. Sjogren, O. Stetzer, E. Swietlicki, M. Szczodrak, P. Vaattovaara, N. Wahlberg, M. Westberg, and C. R. Wheeler
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 2823–2869, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-2823-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-2823-2014, 2014
M. D. Shupe, P. O. G. Persson, I. M. Brooks, M. Tjernström, J. Sedlar, T. Mauritsen, S. Sjogren, and C. Leck
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 9379–9399, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-9379-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-9379-2013, 2013
M. Yang, R. Beale, T. Smyth, and B. Blomquist
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 6165–6184, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-6165-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-6165-2013, 2013
S. J. Norris, I. M. Brooks, B. I. Moat, M. J. Yelland, G. de Leeuw, R. W. Pascal, and B. Brooks
Ocean Sci., 9, 133–145, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-133-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-133-2013, 2013
D. A. J. Sproson, I. M. Brooks, and S. J. Norris
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 6, 323–335, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-6-323-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-6-323-2013, 2013
B. W. Blomquist, C. W. Fairall, B. J. Huebert, and S. T. Wilson
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, 3069–3075, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-3069-2012, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-3069-2012, 2012
Related subject area
Approach: In situ Observations | Properties and processes: Air-sea fluxes | Depth range: Surface | Geographical range: Deep Seas: North Atlantic | Challenges: Oceans and climate
Ocean bubbles under high wind conditions – Part 2: Bubble size distributions and implications for models of bubble dynamics
Role of air–sea fluxes and ocean surface density in the production of deep waters in the eastern subpolar gyre of the North Atlantic
Helen Czerski, Ian M. Brooks, Steve Gunn, Robin Pascal, Adrian Matei, and Byron Blomquist
Ocean Sci., 18, 587–608, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The bubbles formed by breaking waves at the ocean surface are important because they are thought to speed up the movement of gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and ocean. We collected data on the bubbles in the top few metres of the ocean which were created by storms in the North Atlantic. The focus in this paper is the bubble sizes and their position in the water. We saw that there are very predictable patterns and set out what happens to bubbles after a wave breaks.
Tillys Petit, M. Susan Lozier, Simon A. Josey, and Stuart A. Cunningham
Ocean Sci., 17, 1353–1365, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1353-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1353-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Recent work has highlighted the dominant role of the Irminger and Iceland basins in the production of North Atlantic Deep Water. From our analysis, we find that air–sea fluxes and the ocean surface density field are both key determinants of the buoyancy-driven transformation in the Iceland Basin. However, the spatial distribution of the subpolar mode water (SPMW) transformation is most sensitive to surface density changes as opposed to the direct influence of the air–sea fluxes.
Cited articles
Ainslie, M. A.: Effect of wind-generated bubbles on fixed range acoustic
attenuation in shallow water at 1–4 kHz, J. Acoust.
Soc. Am., 118, 3513–3523, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2114527, 2005.
Al-Lashi, R. S., Gunn, S. R., and Czerski, H.: Automated Processing of
Oceanic Bubble Images for Measuring Bubble Size Distributions underneath
Breaking Waves, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 33,
1701–1714, https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech-d-15-0222.1, 2016.
Al-Lashi, R. S., Gunn, S. R., Webb, E. G., and Czerski, H.: A Novel
High-Resolution Optical Instrument for Imaging Oceanic Bubbles, IEEE J. Oceanic Eng., 43, 72–82, https://doi.org/10.1109/joe.2017.2660099, 2018a.
Al-Lashi, R. S., Webster, M., Gunn, S. R., and Czerski, H.: Toward
omnidirectional and automated imaging system for measuring oceanic whitecap
coverage, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 35, 515–521,
https://doi.org/10.1364/JOSAA.35.000515, 2018b.
Anguelova, M. D. and Huq, P.: Characteristics of bubble clouds at various
wind speeds, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 117, C03036,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jc007442, 2012.
Asher, W. and Wanninkhof, R.: The effect of bubble-mediated gas transfer on
purposeful dual-gaeous tracer experiments, J. Geophys. Res.,
103, 10555–10560, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JC00245, 1998.
Atamanchuk, D., Koelling, J., Send, U., and Wallace, D. W. R.: Rapid
transfer of oxygen to the deep ocean mediated by bubbles, Nat. Geosci.,
13, 232–237, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0532-2, 2020.
Azmin, M., Mohamedi, G., Edirisinghe, M., and Stride, E. P.: Dissolution of
coated microbubbles: The effect of nanoparticles and surfactant
concentration, Mater. Sci. Eng.-C, 32, 2654–2658,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2012.06.019, 2012.
Banner, M. L. and Peregrine, D. H.: Wave breaking in deep water, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 25, 373–397, 1993.
Blomquist, B. W., Brumer, S. E., Fairall, C. W., Huebert, B. J., Zappa, C.
J., Brooks, I. M., Yang, M., Bariteau, L., Prytherch, J., Hare, J. E.,
Czerski, H., Matei, A., and Pascal, R. W.: Wind Speed and Sea State
Dependencies of Air-Sea Gas Transfer: Results From the High Wind Speed Gas
Exchange Study (HiWinGS), J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122,
8034–8062, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jc013181, 2017.
Breitz, N. and Medwin, H.: Instrumentation for in situ acoustical
measurement of bubble spectra under breaking waves, J.
Acoust. Soc. Am., 86, 739, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.398196, 1989.
Breivik, Ø., Janssen, P. A. E. M., and Bidlot, J.-R.: Approximate Stokes
Drift Profiles in Deep Water, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 44,
2433–2445, https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-14-0020.1, 2014.
Brooks, I.: 1D and 2D wave spectra and statistics in the North Atlantic, British Oceanographic Date Centre [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/c9ae04d6-32d2-73f1-e053-6c86abc0c833, 2021.
Brumer, S. E., Zappa, C. J., Blomquist, B. W., Fairall, C. W.,
Cifuentes-Lorenzen, A., Edson, J. B., Brooks, I. M., and Huebert, B. J.:
Wave-Related Reynolds Number Parameterizations of CO2 and DMS Transfer
Velocities, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 9865–9875,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gl074979, 2017a.
Brumer, S. E., Zappa, C. J., Brooks, I. M., Tamura, H., Brown, S. M.,
Blomquist, B. W., Fairall, C. W., and Cifuentes-Lorenzen, A.: Whitecap
Coverage Dependence on Wind and Wave Statistics as Observed during SO GasEx
and HiWinGS, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 47, 2211–2235,
https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-17-0005.1, 2017b.
Callaghan, A., de Leeuw, G., Cohen, L., and O'Dowd, C. D.: Relationship of
oceanic whitecap coverage to wind speed and wind history, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 35, L23609, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008gl036165, 2008.
Callaghan, A. H., Deane, G. B., and Stokes, M. D.: Two Regimes of Laboratory
Whitecap Foam Decay: Bubble-Plume Controlled and Surfactant Stabilized,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 43, 1114–1126, https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-12-0148.1,
2013.
Callaghan, A. H., Stokes, M. D., and Deane, G. B.: The effect of water
temperature on air entrainment, bubble plumes, and surface foam in a
laboratory breaking-wave analog, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
119, 7463–7482, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014jc010351, 2014.
Callaghan, A. H., Deane, G. B., and Stokes, M. D.: Laboratory air-entraining
breaking waves: Imaging visible foam signatures to estimate energy
dissipation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 11320–11328,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl071226, 2016.
Callaghan, A. H., Deane, G. B., and Stokes, M. D.: On the imprint of
surfactant-driven stabilization of laboratory breaking wave foam with
comparison to oceanic whitecaps, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
122, 6110–6128, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jc012809, 2017.
Chiba, D. and Baschek, B.: Effect of Langmuir cells on bubble dissolution
and air-sea gas exchange, J. Geophys. Res., 115, C10046,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010jc006203, 2010.
Clarke, A. J. and Van Gorder, S.: The Relationship of Near-Surface Flow,
Stokes Drift and the Wind Stress, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
123, 4680–4692, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc014102, 2018.
Crawford, G. B. and Farmer, D. M.: On the spatial distribution of ocean
bubbles, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 8231–8243, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC092iC08p08231, 1987.
Czerski, H.: An Inversion of Acoustical Attenuation Measurements to Deduce
Bubble Populations, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 29,
1139–1148, https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech-d-11-00170.1, 2012.
Czerski, H. and Blomquist, B. W.: HiWinGS expedition (North Atlantic, October–November 2013) 10 minute meteorological data, NERC EDS British Oceanographic Data Centre NOC [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/dd2837f0-b721-7b13-e053-6c86abc0cee7, 2022.
Czerski, H., Vagle, S., Farmer, D. M., and Hall-Patch, N.: Improvements to
the methods used to measure bubble attenuation using an underwater
acoustical resonator, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 130, 3421–3430, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3569723,
2011.
Czerski, H., Brooks, I., Gunn, S. R., Matei, A., and Al-Lashi, R.: Near-surface bubble size distributions and sonar data in the North Atlantic, British Oceanographic Date Centre [data set], https://doi.org/10.5285/c972e316-2b93-1b4e-e053-6c86abc02285, 2021.
Czerski, H., Brooks, I. M., Gunn, S., Pascal, R., Matei, A., and Blomquist, B.: Ocean bubbles under high wind conditions – Part 2: Bubble size
distributions and implications for models of bubble dynamics, Ocean Sci., 18, 587–608, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-587-2022, 2022.
Dahl, P. H.: The contribution of bubbles to high-frequency sea surface
backscatter: a 24-h time series of field measurements, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 113,
769–780, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1532029, 2003.
Deane, G. B.: Surface tension effects in breaking wave noise, J. Acoust. Soc.
Am., 132, 700–708, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4730887, 2012.
Deane, G. B.: The Performance of High-Frequency Doppler Sonars in Actively
Breaking Wave Crests, IEEE J. Oceanic Eng., 41, 1028–1034,
https://doi.org/10.1109/joe.2016.2521247, 2016.
Deane, G. B. and Stokes, D. M.: Scale dependence of bubble creation
mechanisms in breaking waves, Nature, 418, 839–844, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature00967, 2002.
Deane, G. B. and Stokes, M. D.: Model calculations of the underwater noise
of breaking waves and comparison with experiment, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 127,
3394–3410, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3419774, 2010.
Deike, L. and Melville, W. K.: Gas Transfer by Breaking Waves, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 45, 10482–10492, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gl078758, 2018.
Deike, L., Melville, W. K., and Popinet, S.: Air entrainment and bubble
statistics in breaking waves, J. Fluid Mech., 801, 91–129,
https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2016.372, 2016.
de Leeuw, G., Andreas, E. L., Anguelova, M. D., Fairall, C. W., Lewis, E.
R., O'Dowd, C., Schulz, M., and Schwartz, S. E.: Production flux of sea
spray aerosol, Rev. Geophys., 49, RG2001, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010rg000349, 2011.
Farmer, D. M. and Li, M.: Patterns of Bubble Clouds Organised by Langmuir
Circulation, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 1426–1440, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<1426:POBCOB>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Farmer, D. M., McNeil, C. L., and Johnson, B. D.: Evidence for the
importance of bubbles in increasing gas flux, Nature, 361, 620–623, 1993.
Farmer, D. M., Vagle, S., and Booth, A. D.: A free-flooding acoustical
resonator for measurement of bubble size distributions, J.
Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
15, 1132–1146, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<1132:AFFARF>2.0.CO;2, 1998a.
Farmer, D. M., Vagle, S., and Booth, D.: Reverberation effects in acoustical
resonators used for bubble measurements, J. Acoust.
Soc. Am., 118, 2954–2960, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2047148, 2005.
Frew, N., Goldman, J. C., Dennett, M. R., and Johnson, A. S.: Impact of
Phytoplankton-Generate Surfactants on Air-Sea Gas Exchange, J.
Geophys. Res., 95, 3337–3352, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC095iC03p03337, 1990.
Gantt, B. and Meskhidze, N.: The physical and chemical characteristics of marine primary organic aerosol: a review, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 3979–3996, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-3979-2013, 2013.
Gemmrich, J. R. and Farmer, D. M.: Observations of the Scale and Occurrence of
Breaking Surface Waves, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 29, 2595–2606, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1999)029<2595:OOTSAO>2.0.CO;2, 1999.
Gemmrich, J. R. and Farmer, D. M.: Near-surface turbulence in the presence of
breaking waves, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 1067–1086, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1067:NTITPO>2.0.CO;2, 2004.
Goddijn-Murphy, L., Woolf, D. K., and Callaghan, A. H.: Parameterizations
and Algorithms for Oceanic Whitecap Coverage, J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 41, 742–756, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010jpo4533.1, 2011.
Goddijn-Murphy, L., Woolf, D. K., Callaghan, A. H., Nightingale, P. D., and
Shutler, J. D.: A reconciliation of empirical and mechanistic models of the
air-sea gas transfer velocity, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 121,
818–835, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jc011096, 2016.
Graham, A., Woolf, D. K., and Hall, A. J.: Aeration Due to Breaking Waves.
Part I: Bubble Populations, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 989–1007,
2004.
Hwang, P. A., Savelyev, I. B., and Anguelova, M. D.: Breaking waves and
near-surface sea spray aerosol dependence on changing winds: Wave breaking
efficiency and bubble-related air-sea interaction processes, IOP C.
Ser. Earth Env., 35, 012004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/35/1/012004,
2016.
Johnson, B. D. and Wangersky, P. J.: Microbubbles: Stabilization by
Monolayers of Adsorbed Particles, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 14641–14647, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC092iC13p14641, 1987.
Kim, M. J., Novak, G. A., Zoerb, M. C., Yang, M., Blomquist, B. W., Huebert,
B. J., Cappa, C. D., and Bertram, T. H.: Air-Sea exchange of biogenic
volatile organic compounds and the impact on aerosol particle size
distributions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 3887–3896,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gl072975, 2017.
Kuhnhenn-Dauben, V., Purdie, D. A., Knispel, U., Voss, H., and Horstmann,
U.: Effect of phytoplankton growth on air bubble residence time in seawater,
J. Geophys. Res., 113, C06009, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jc004232, 2008.
Kukulka, T., Plueddemann, A. J., Trowbridge, J. H., and Sullivan, P. P.:
Rapid Mixed Layer Deepening by the Combination of Langmuir and Shear
Instabilities: A Case Study, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 40,
2381–2400, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010jpo4403.1, 2010.
Laxague, N. J. M., Özgökmen, T. M., Haus, B. K., Novelli, G.,
Shcherbina, A., Sutherland, P., Guigand, C. M., Lund, B., Mehta, S., Alday,
M., and Molemaker, J.: Observations of Near-Surface Current Shear Help
Describe Oceanic Oil and Plastic Transport, Geophys. Res. Lett.,
45, 245–249, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gl075891, 2018.
Leifer, I., Leeuw, G. D., and Cohen, L. H.: Optical measurement of bubbles:
system design and application, J. Atmos. Ocean.
Tech., 20, 1317–1332, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<1317:OMOBSD>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Lewis, E. R. and Schwartz, S. E.: Sea salt aerosol production mechanisms,
methods, measurements and models: a critical review, American Geophysical
Union, ISBN 13 9780875904177, 2013.
Liang, J.-H., McWilliams, J. C., Sullivan, P. P., and Baschek, B.: Large
eddy simulation of the bubbly ocean: New insights on subsurface bubble
distribution and bubble-mediated gas transfer, J. Geophys.
Res.-Oceans, 117, C04002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jc007766, 2012.
Liang, J.-H., Emerson, S. R., D'Asaro, E. A., McNeil, C. L., Harcourt, R.
R., Sullivan, P. P., Yang, B., and Cronin, M. F.: On the role of sea-state
in bubble-mediated air-sea gas flux during a winter storm, J.
Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 2671–2685, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jc012408, 2017.
Lozano, M. and Longo, M.: Microbubbles Coated with Disaturated Lipids and
DSPE-PEG2000:
Phase Behavior, Collapse Transitions, and Permeability, Langmuir, 25, 3705–3712, https://doi.org/10.1021/la803774q, 2009.
Morey, S., Wienders, N., Dukhovskoy, D., and Bourassa, M.: Measurement
Characteristics of Near-Surface Currents from Ultra-Thin Drifters, Drogued
Drifters, and HF Radar, Remote Sensing, 10, 1633, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101633, 2018.
Norris, S. J., Brooks, I. M., Moat, B. I., Yelland, M. J., de Leeuw, G., Pascal, R. W., and Brooks, B.: Near-surface measurements of sea spray aerosol production over whitecaps in the open ocean, Ocean Sci., 9, 133–145, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-133-2013, 2013.
Pascal, R., Yelland, M., Srokosz, M., Moat, B. I., Waugh, E., Comben, D.,
Coles, D. G. H., Chang Hsueh, P., and Leighton, T. G.: A Spar Buoy for
High-Frequency Wave Measurements and Detection of Wave Breaking in the Open
Ocean, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 28, 590–605,
https://doi.org/10.1175/2010jtecho764.1, 2011.
Randolph, K., Dierssen, H. M., Twardowski, M., Cifuentes-Lorenzen, A., and
Zappa, C. J.: Optical measurements of small deeply penetrating bubble
populations generated by breaking waves in the Southern Ocean, J.
Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119, 757–776, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013jc009227, 2014.
Sabbaghzadeh, B., Upstill-Goddard, R. C., Beale, R., Pereira, R., and
Nightingale, P. D.: The Atlantic Ocean surface microlayer from 50∘ N to 50∘ S is ubiquitously enriched in surfactants at wind speeds
up to 13 m s−1, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 2852–2858,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gl072988, 2017.
Salisbury, D. J., Anguelova, M. D., and Brooks, I. M.: On the variability of
whitecap fraction using satellite-based observations, J. Geophys.
Res.-Oceans, 118, 6201–6222, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013jc008797, 2013.
Salter, M. E., Nilsson, E. D., Butcher, A., and Bilde, M.: On the seawater
temperature dependence of the sea spray aerosol generated by a continuous
plunging jet, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 9052–9072,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2013jd021376, 2014.
Scanlon, B. and Ward, B.: The influence of environmental parameters on
active and maturing oceanic whitecaps, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 121, 3325–3336, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jc011230, 2016.
Slauenwhite, D. and Johnson, B. D.: Bubble shattering: Differences in bubble
formation in freshwater and seawater, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 3265–3275, https://doi.org/10.1029/1998JC900064,
1999.
Smith, J. A.: Observed growth of Langmuir circulation, J.
Geophys. Res., 97, 5651–5664, https://doi.org/10.1029/91jc03118, 1992.
Stokes, M. D. and Deane, G. B.: A new optical instrument for the study of
bubbles at high void fractions within breaking waves, IEEE J.
Ocean. Eng., 24, 300–311, https://doi.org/10.1109/48.775292, 1999.
Talapatra, S., Sullivan, J., Katz, J., Twardowski, M., Czerski, H.,
Donaghay, P., Hong, J., Rines, J., McFarland, M., Nayak, A. R., and Zhang,
C.: Application of in-situ digital holography in the study of particles,
organisms and bubbles within their natural environment, Proc. SPIE, 8372, 837205, https://doi.org/10.1117/12.920570, 2012.
Talley, L. D., Feely, R. A., Sloyan, B. M., Wanninkhof, R., Baringer, M. O.,
Bullister, J. L., Carlson, C. A., Doney, S. C., Fine, R. A., Firing, E.,
Gruber, N., Hansell, D. A., Ishii, M., Johnson, G. C., Katsumata, K., Key,
R. M., Kramp, M., Langdon, C., Macdonald, A. M., Mathis, J. T., McDonagh, E.
L., Mecking, S., Millero, F. J., Mordy, C. W., Nakano, T., Sabine, C. L.,
Smethie, W. M., Swift, J. H., Tanhua, T., Thurnherr, A. M., Warner, M. J.,
and Zhang, J. Z.: Changes in Ocean Heat, Carbon Content, and Ventilation: A
Review of the First Decade of GO-SHIP Global Repeat Hydrography, Annu. Rev. Mar.
Sci., 8, 185–215, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-052915-100829, 2016.
Terrill, E. J., Melville, K., and Stramski, D.: Bubble entrainment by
breaking waves and their influence on optical scattering in the upper ocean,
J. Geophys. Res., 106, 16815–16823, 2001.
Thorpe, S. A.: On the clouds of bubbles formed by breaking wind-waves in
deep water and their role in air-sea gas transfer, Philos.
T. R. Soc. Lond., 304, 155–210, 1982.
Thorpe, S. A., Osborn, T. R., Farmer, D. M., and Vagle, S.: Bubble clouds
and Langmuir Circulation: Observations and Models, J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 33, 2013–2031, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033<2013:BCALCO>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Toba, Y., Komori, S., Suzuki, Y., and Zhao, D.: Similarity and dissimilarity
in air–sea momentum and CO2 transfers: the nondimensional transfer
coefficients in light of the windsea Reynolds number, in: Atmosphere-Ocean
Interactions, edited by: Perrie, W., WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and
Engineering, 53–82, https://doi.org/10.2495/978-1-85312-929-2/03, 2006.
Trevorrow, M. V.: Measurements of near-surface bubble plumes in the open
ocean with implications for high-frequency sonar performance, J. Acoust. Soc.
Am., 114, 2672–2684, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1621008, 2003.
Vagle, S., McNeil, C., and Steiner, N.: Upper ocean bubble measurements from
the NE Pacific and estimates of their role in air-sea gas transfer of the
weakly soluble gases nitrogen and oxygen, J. Geophys. Res.,
115, C12054, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jc005990, 2010.
Vagle, S., Gemmrich, J., and Czerski, H.: Reduced upper ocean turbulence and
changes to bubble size distributions during large downward heat flux events,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 117, C00H16, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jc007308,
2012.
van der Mheen, M., Pattiaratchi, C., Cosoli, S., and Wandres, M.:
Depth-Dependent Correction for Wind-Driven Drift Current in Particle
Tracking Applications, Front. Mar. Sci., 7, 305,
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00305, 2020.
Wang, D. W., Wijesekera, H. W., Teague, W. J., Rogers, W. E., and Jarosz,
E.: Bubble cloud depth under a hurricane, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38,
L14604, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011gl047966, 2011.
Wanninkhof, R.: Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the
ocean revisited, Limnol. Oceanogr.-Meth., 12, 351–362,
https://doi.org/10.4319/lom.2014.12.351, 2014.
Wanninkhof, R. and Triñanes, J.: The impact of changing wind speeds on
gas transfer and its effect on global air-sea CO2
fluxes, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 31, 961–974, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gb005592,
2017.
Watson, A., Schuster, U., Bakker, D., Bates, N., Corbiere, A.,
Gonzales-Davila, M., Wallace, D., and Wanninkhof, R.: Tracking the Variable
North Atlantic Sink for Atmospheric CO2, Science, 326, 1391–1393, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177394, 2009.
Webb, A. and Fox-Kemper, B.: Impacts of wave spreading and multidirectional
waves on estimating Stokes drift, Ocean Model., 96, 49–64,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2014.12.007, 2015.
Woosley, R. J., Millero, F. J., and Wanninkhof, R.: Rapid anthropogenic
changes in CO2 and pH in the Atlantic Ocean: 2003–2014, Global Biogeochem.
Cy., 30, 70–90, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015gb005248, 2016.
Wu, J.: Sea-Surface Drift Currents Induced by Wind and Waves, J.
Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 1441–1451, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<1441:SSDCIB>2.0.CO;2, 1983.
Wurl, O., Wurl, E., Miller, L., Johnson, K., and Vagle, S.: Formation and
global distribution of sea-surface microlayers, Biogeosciences, 8, 121–135,
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-8-121-2011, 2011.
Yang, M., Blomquist, B. W., and Nightingale, P. D.: Air-sea exchange of
methanol and acetone during HiWinGS: Estimation of air phase, water phase
gas transfer velocities, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 119,
7308–7323, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014jc010227, 2014.
Yang, M., Norris, S. J., Bell, T. G., and Brooks, I. M.: Sea spray fluxes from the southwest coast of the United Kingdom – dependence on wind speed and wave height, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 15271–15284, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-15271-2019, 2019.
Zedel, L. and Farmer, D.: Organized structures in subsurface bubble clouds:
Langmuir circulation in the open ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 8889–8900,
https://doi.org/10.1029/91jc00189, 1991.
Zhao, D. and Toba, Y.: Dependence of Whitecap Coverage on Wind and Wind-Wave Properties, J. Oceanogr., 57, 603–616, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021215904955 2001.
Zhou, J., Mopper, K., and Passow, U.: The role of surface-active
carbohydrates in the formation of transparent exopolymer particles by bubble
absorption of seawater, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, 43, 1860–1871, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1998.43.8.1860,
1998.
Short summary
The bubbles formed by breaking waves speed up the movement of gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and the ocean. Understanding where these gases go is an important part of understanding Earth's climate. In this paper we describe measurements of the bubbles close to the ocean surface during big storms in the North Atlantic. We observed small bubbles collecting in distinctive patterns which help us to understand the contribution they make to the ocean breathing.
The bubbles formed by breaking waves speed up the movement of gases like carbon dioxide and...
