Articles | Volume 15, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1469-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1469-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
The wave spectrum in archipelagos
Jan-Victor Björkqvist
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101, Helsinki, Finland
Heidi Pettersson
Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101, Helsinki, Finland
Kimmo K. Kahma
Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101, Helsinki, Finland
Related authors
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Hedi Kanarik, Laura Tuomi, Lauri Niskanen, and Markus Kankainen
State Planet, 4-osr8, 10, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-4-osr8-10-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-4-osr8-10-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Typical wave statistics do not provide information on how often certain wave heights are exceeded and the length of such events. Our study found a strong seasonal dependence for 2.5 and 4 m wave events in the Baltic Sea. Wave heights of over 7 m occurred less than once per year. The number of 1 m wave events can double within 20 km in nearshore areas. Our results are important for all operations at sea, including ship traffic and fish farming.
Milla M. Johansson, Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Jani Särkkä, Ulpu Leijala, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 813–829, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-813-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-813-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We analysed the correlation of sea level and wind waves at a coastal location in the Gulf of Finland using tide gauge data, wave measurements, and wave simulations. The correlation was positive for southwesterly winds and negative for northeasterly winds. Probabilities of high total water levels (sea level + wave crest) are underestimated if sea level and waves are considered independent. Suitably chosen copula functions can account for the dependence.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Siim Pärt, Victor Alari, Sander Rikka, Elisa Lindgren, and Laura Tuomi
Ocean Sci., 17, 1815–1829, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1815-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1815-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Waves that travel faster than the wind are called swell. Our study presents wave model statistics of swell waves in the Baltic Sea, since such statistics have not yet been reliably compiled. Our results confirm that long, high, and persistent swell is absent in the Baltic Sea. We found that the dependency between swell and wind waves differs in the open sea compared to nearshore areas. These distinctions are important for studies on how waves interact with the atmosphere and the sea floor.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Sander Rikka, Victor Alari, Aarne Männik, Laura Tuomi, and Heidi Pettersson
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 3593–3609, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-3593-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-3593-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Wave observations have a fundamental uncertainty due to the randomness of the sea state. Such scatter is absent in model data, and we tried two methods to best account for this difference when combining measured and modelled wave heights. The results were used to estimate how rare a 2019 storm in the Bothnian Sea was. Both methods were found to have strengths and weaknesses, but our best estimate was that, in the current climate, such a storm might on average repeat about once a century.
Havu Pellikka, Terhi K. Laurila, Hanna Boman, Anu Karjalainen, Jan-Victor Björkqvist, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2535–2546, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2535-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2535-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Meteotsunamis are long waves created by atmospheric disturbances travelling over the sea. These waves can be hazardous in rare cases. Their occurrence in the Baltic Sea has been poorly known, which is why we examine century-long sea level records from the Gulf of Finland to identify these waves. In total, 121 potential meteotsunamis were found. The strong connection between meteotsunami occurrence and lightning observations indicates that meteotsunamis in this region occur during thunderstorms.
Ulpu Leijala, Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Milla M. Johansson, Havu Pellikka, Lauri Laakso, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 2785–2799, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2785-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2785-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The coastal flooding risks based on the combined effect of sea level variations and wind-generated waves are estimated for the present, 2050 and 2100. The variability of the wave conditions between the two case study locations in the Helsinki archipelago leads to a difference in the safe building levels of up to 1 m. The rising mean sea level in the Gulf of Finland and the uncertainty of the associated scenarios contribute to the flooding risks notably in 2100.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Laura Tuomi, Niko Tollman, Antti Kangas, Heidi Pettersson, Riikka Marjamaa, Hannu Jokinen, and Carl Fortelius
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1653–1658, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1653-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1653-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the highest wave events in the Baltic Sea using wave measurements available since 1996. Going beyond classifying them based solely on the maximum wave height, we found that they can be divided into two groups based on, for example, the length of the storm. Two of the severest storms show different behaviour, with the most recent (in 2017) being the longest on record. We hope this more in-depth description of the storms will aid in the issuing of warnings for extreme wave conditions.
J.-V. Björkqvist, H. Pettersson, L. Laakso, K. K. Kahma, H. Jokinen, and P. Kosloff
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 17–25, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-5-17-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-5-17-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We identified a previously unknown artefact in the Datawell DWR-G4 wave buoy, which measures the GPS signal to resolve surface water waves. The artefact interferes with the part of the measurements containing information about the longer waves and must be removed to obtain accurate readings. We presented a correction method and found it to be accurate based on a comparison to measurements from a larger wave buoy that measures the movements of the device without using the GPS signal.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Hedi Kanarik, Laura Tuomi, Lauri Niskanen, and Markus Kankainen
State Planet, 4-osr8, 10, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-4-osr8-10-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-4-osr8-10-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Typical wave statistics do not provide information on how often certain wave heights are exceeded and the length of such events. Our study found a strong seasonal dependence for 2.5 and 4 m wave events in the Baltic Sea. Wave heights of over 7 m occurred less than once per year. The number of 1 m wave events can double within 20 km in nearshore areas. Our results are important for all operations at sea, including ship traffic and fish farming.
Christoffer Hallgren, Johan Arnqvist, Erik Nilsson, Stefan Ivanell, Metodija Shapkalijevski, August Thomasson, Heidi Pettersson, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1183–1207, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Non-idealized wind profiles with negative shear in part of the profile (e.g., low-level jets) frequently occur in coastal environments and are important to take into consideration for offshore wind power. Using observations from a coastal site in the Baltic Sea, we analyze in which meteorological and sea state conditions these profiles occur and study how they alter the turbulence structure of the boundary layer compared to idealized profiles.
Milla M. Johansson, Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Jani Särkkä, Ulpu Leijala, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 813–829, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-813-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-813-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We analysed the correlation of sea level and wind waves at a coastal location in the Gulf of Finland using tide gauge data, wave measurements, and wave simulations. The correlation was positive for southwesterly winds and negative for northeasterly winds. Probabilities of high total water levels (sea level + wave crest) are underestimated if sea level and waves are considered independent. Suitably chosen copula functions can account for the dependence.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Siim Pärt, Victor Alari, Sander Rikka, Elisa Lindgren, and Laura Tuomi
Ocean Sci., 17, 1815–1829, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1815-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1815-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Waves that travel faster than the wind are called swell. Our study presents wave model statistics of swell waves in the Baltic Sea, since such statistics have not yet been reliably compiled. Our results confirm that long, high, and persistent swell is absent in the Baltic Sea. We found that the dependency between swell and wind waves differs in the open sea compared to nearshore areas. These distinctions are important for studies on how waves interact with the atmosphere and the sea floor.
Jari Walden, Liisa Pirjola, Tuomas Laurila, Juha Hatakka, Heidi Pettersson, Tuomas Walden, Jukka-Pekka Jalkanen, Harri Nordlund, Toivo Truuts, Miika Meretoja, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 18175–18194, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-18175-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-18175-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Ship emissions play an important role in the deposition of gaseous compounds and nanoparticles (Ntot), affecting climate, human health (especially in coastal areas), and eutrophication. Micrometeorological methods showed that ship emissions were mainly responsible for the deposition of Ntot, whereas they only accounted for a minor proportion of CO2 deposition. An uncertainty analysis applied to the fluxes and fuel sulfur content results demonstrated the reliability of the results.
Ralf Weisse, Inga Dailidienė, Birgit Hünicke, Kimmo Kahma, Kristine Madsen, Anders Omstedt, Kevin Parnell, Tilo Schöne, Tarmo Soomere, Wenyan Zhang, and Eduardo Zorita
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 871–898, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-871-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-871-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The study is part of the thematic Baltic Earth Assessment Reports – a series of review papers summarizing the knowledge around major Baltic Earth science topics. It concentrates on sea level dynamics and coastal erosion (its variability and change). Many of the driving processes are relevant in the Baltic Sea. Contributions vary over short distances and across timescales. Progress and research gaps are described in both understanding details in the region and in extending general concepts.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Sander Rikka, Victor Alari, Aarne Männik, Laura Tuomi, and Heidi Pettersson
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 3593–3609, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-3593-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-3593-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Wave observations have a fundamental uncertainty due to the randomness of the sea state. Such scatter is absent in model data, and we tried two methods to best account for this difference when combining measured and modelled wave heights. The results were used to estimate how rare a 2019 storm in the Bothnian Sea was. Both methods were found to have strengths and weaknesses, but our best estimate was that, in the current climate, such a storm might on average repeat about once a century.
Havu Pellikka, Terhi K. Laurila, Hanna Boman, Anu Karjalainen, Jan-Victor Björkqvist, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2535–2546, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2535-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2535-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Meteotsunamis are long waves created by atmospheric disturbances travelling over the sea. These waves can be hazardous in rare cases. Their occurrence in the Baltic Sea has been poorly known, which is why we examine century-long sea level records from the Gulf of Finland to identify these waves. In total, 121 potential meteotsunamis were found. The strong connection between meteotsunami occurrence and lightning observations indicates that meteotsunamis in this region occur during thunderstorms.
Ulpu Leijala, Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Milla M. Johansson, Havu Pellikka, Lauri Laakso, and Kimmo K. Kahma
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 2785–2799, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2785-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2785-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The coastal flooding risks based on the combined effect of sea level variations and wind-generated waves are estimated for the present, 2050 and 2100. The variability of the wave conditions between the two case study locations in the Helsinki archipelago leads to a difference in the safe building levels of up to 1 m. The rising mean sea level in the Gulf of Finland and the uncertainty of the associated scenarios contribute to the flooding risks notably in 2100.
Jan-Victor Björkqvist, Laura Tuomi, Niko Tollman, Antti Kangas, Heidi Pettersson, Riikka Marjamaa, Hannu Jokinen, and Carl Fortelius
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1653–1658, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1653-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1653-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the highest wave events in the Baltic Sea using wave measurements available since 1996. Going beyond classifying them based solely on the maximum wave height, we found that they can be divided into two groups based on, for example, the length of the storm. Two of the severest storms show different behaviour, with the most recent (in 2017) being the longest on record. We hope this more in-depth description of the storms will aid in the issuing of warnings for extreme wave conditions.
Vasco M. N. C. S. Vieira, Pavel Jurus, Emanuela Clementi, Heidi Pettersson, and Marcos Mateus
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2016-273, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2016-273, 2016
Revised manuscript has not been submitted
J.-V. Björkqvist, H. Pettersson, L. Laakso, K. K. Kahma, H. Jokinen, and P. Kosloff
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 17–25, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-5-17-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-5-17-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We identified a previously unknown artefact in the Datawell DWR-G4 wave buoy, which measures the GPS signal to resolve surface water waves. The artefact interferes with the part of the measurements containing information about the longer waves and must be removed to obtain accurate readings. We presented a correction method and found it to be accurate based on a comparison to measurements from a larger wave buoy that measures the movements of the device without using the GPS signal.
V. M. N. C. S. Vieira, E. Sahlée, P. Jurus, E. Clementi, H. Pettersson, and M. Mateus
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15901-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15901-2015, 2015
Manuscript not accepted for further review
V. M. N. C. S. Vieira, E. Sahlée, P. Jurus, E. Clementi, H. Pettersson, and M. Mateus
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15925-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15925-2015, 2015
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Related subject area
Approach: In situ Observations | Depth range: Surface | Geographical range: Baltic Sea | Phenomena: Surface Waves
Wave climate in the Arkona Basin, the Baltic Sea
T. Soomere, R. Weisse, and A. Behrens
Ocean Sci., 8, 287–300, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-8-287-2012, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-8-287-2012, 2012
Cited articles
Anderson, J. D., Wu, C. H., and Schwab, D. J.: Wave climatology in the Apostle
Islands, Lake Superior, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120,
4869–4890, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JC010278, 2015. a
Banner, M. L.: Equilibrium Spectra of Wind Waves, J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 20, 966–984,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020<0966:ESOWW>2.0.CO;2, 1990. a
Battjes, J. A. and van Vledder, G. P.: Verification of Kimura’s Theory for
Wave Group Statistics, in: Proc. 19th Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering,
642–648, ASCE, New York, https://doi.org/10.1061/9780872624382.044, 1984. a, b, c
Björkqvist, J.-V., Pettersson, H., Laakso, L., Kahma, K. K., Jokinen, H., and Kosloff, P.: Removing low-frequency artefacts from Datawell DWR-G4 wave buoy measurements, Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 5, 17–25, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-5-17-2016, 2016. a
Björkqvist, J.-V., Tuomi, L., Fortelius, C., Pettersson, H., Tikka, K.,
and Kahma, K. K.: Improved estimates of nearshore wave conditions in the
Gulf of Finland, J. Mar. Syst., 171, 43–53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2016.07.005,
2017a. a
Björkqvist, J.-V., Vähäaho, I., and Kahma, K. K.: Spectral
field measurements of wave reflection at a steep shore with wave damping
chambers, in: WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, 170,
185–191, https://doi.org/10.2495/CC170181, 2017b. a
Björkqvist, J.-V., Vähä-Piikkiö, O., Alari, V.,
Kuznetsova, A., and Tuomi, L.: WAM, SWAN and WAVEWATCH III in the Finnish
archipelago – the effect of spectral performance on bulk wave parameters,
J. Oper. Oceanogr., 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2019.1633236, 2019a. a, b, c
Björkqvist, J.-V., Pettersson, H., and Kahma, K.: Wave and wind data from the Helsinki archipelago and Gulf of Finland (Version Version1) [Data set], Zenodo, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3482304, 2019b. a
Donelan, M. A. and Pierson, W. J.: The Sampling Variability of Estimates of
Spectra of Wind-Generated Gravity Waves, J. Geophys. Res.,
88, 4381–4392, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC088iC07p04381, 1983. a
Donelan, M. A., Hamilton, J., and Hui, W. H.: Directional Spectra of
Wind-Generated Waves, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 315, 509–562,
https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1985.0054,
1985. a, b
Eldeberky, Y.: Nonlinear transformation of wave spectra in the nearshore,
PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, 1996. a
Hardy, T. A. and Young, I. R.: Field study of wave attenuation on an offshore
coral reef, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 14311–14326,
https://doi.org/10.1029/96JC00202,
1996. a
Hasselmann, K., Barnett, T. P., Bouws, E., Carlson, H., Cartwright, D. E.,
Enke, K., Ewing, J. A., Gienapp, H., Hasselmann, D. E., Kruseman, P.,
Meerburg, A., Muller, P., Olbers, D. J., Richter, K., Sell, W., and Walden,
H.: Measurements of Wind-Wave Growth and Swell Decay during the Joint North
Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP), Ergnzungsheft zur Deutschen Hydrographischen
Zeitschrift Reihe, A(8), p. 95, 2710264, 1973. a, b, c
Janssen, P. A. E. M.: Nonlinear Four-Wave Interactions and Freak Waves,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 33, 863–884,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)33<863:NFIAFW>2.0.CO;2, 2003. a, b
Kahma, K. K.: On a two-peak structure in steady-state fetch-limited wave
spectra, Licentiate thesis in Geophysics, University of Helsinki, p. 75,
1979. a
Kahma, K. K.: A Study of the Growth of the Wave Spectrum with Fetch, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 11, 1503–1515, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1981)011<1503:ASOTGO>2.0.CO;2,
1981. a, b
Kahma, K. K. and Calkoen, C. J.: Reconciling Discrepancies in the Observed
Growth of Wind-generated Waves, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 22,
1389–1405, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1992)022<1389:RDITOG>2.0.CO;2,
1992. a
Kahma, K. K., Björkqvist, J.-V., Johansson, M. M., Jokinen, H., Leijala,
U., Särkkä, J., Tikka, K., and Tuomi, L.: Turvalliset
rakentamiskorkeudet Helsingin rannoilla 2020, 2050 ja 2100, Tech. rep., 96,
City of Helsinki, Real Estate Department, Geotechnical Division,
available at: http://www.hel.fi/static/kv/turvalliset-rakentamiskorkeudet.pdf (last access: 11 November 2019),
2016. a
Kitaigorodskii, S. A.: On the Theory of the Equilibrium Range in the Spectrum
of Wind-Generated Gravity Waves, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13,
816–827, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<0816:OTTOTE>2.0.CO;2,
1983. a
Lenain, L. and Melville, W. K.: Measurements of the directional spectrum
across the equilibrium-saturation ranges of wind-generated surface waves,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 47, 2123–2138,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0017.1,
2017. a
Longuet-Higgins, M. S.: On the Join Distribution of the Periods and Amplitudes
of Sea Waves, J. Geophys. Res., 80, 2688–2694,
https://doi.org/10.1029/JC080i018p02688, 1975. a, b, c, d
Mazarakis, N., Kotroni, V., Lagouvardos, K., and Bertotti, L.: High-resolution wave model validation over the Greek maritime areas, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 3433–3440, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-3433-2012, 2012. a
Onorato, M., Osborne, A. R., and Serio, M.: Extreme wave events in
directional, random oceanic sea states, Phys. Fluids, 14, 3–6,
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1453466, 2002. a
Orear, J.: Least squares when both variables have uncertainties, American
J. Phys., 50, 912–916, https://doi.org/10.1119/1.12972,
1982. a
Pettersson, H.: Wave growth in a narrow bay, PhD thesis, University of
Helsinki, 2004. a
Pettersson, H., Kahma, K. K., and Tuomi, L.: Wave Directions in a Narrow Bay,
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 40, 155–169, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JPO4220.1,
2010. a
Pettersson, H., Lindow, H., and Brüning, T.: Wave climate in the Baltic
Sea 2012, Tech. rep., available at:
http://www.helcom.fi/Documents/Baltic sea trends/Environment fact sheets/Wave_climate_in_the_Baltic_Sea_2012_BSEFS2013.pdf (last access: 11 November 2019), 2013. a
Phillips, O. M.: The equilibrium range in the spectrum of wind-generated
waves, J. Fluid Mech., 4, 426–434,
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112058000550,
1958. a
Pierson, W. J. and Marks, W.: The power spectrum analysis of ocean‐wave
records, EOS T. Am. Geophys. Un., 33, 834–844,
https://doi.org/10.1029/TR033i006p00834, 1952. a
Pierson, W. J. and Moskowitz, L.: A proposed spectral form for fully developed
wind seas based on the similarity theory of S. A. Kitaigorodskii, J.
Geophys. Res., 69, 5181–5190, https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ069i024p05181,
1964. a
Serio, M., Onorato, M., Osborne, A. R., and Janssen, P. A. E. M.: On the
computation of the Benjamin-Feir Index, Nuovo Cimento C, 28, 893–903, https://doi.org/10.1393/ncc/i2005-10134-1, 2005. a, b
Sobey, R. J. and Young, I. R.: Hurricane Wind Waves–A Discrete Spectral
Model, in: Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
112, 370–389, ASCE, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(1986)112:3(370), 1986. a
Soukissian, T. H., Prospathopoulos, A. M., and Diamanti, C.: Wind and Wave
Data Analysis for the Aegean Sea – Preliminary Results, J.
Atmos. Ocean Sci., 8, 163–189,
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023673029000003525, 2004. a
SPM: Shore Protection Manual, Vol. I, Dept. of the Army, Waterways
Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center,, available at: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/102420 (last access: 11 November 2019),
1984. a
Tayfun, M. A.: Effects of spectrum band width on the distribution of wave
heights and periods, Ocean Eng., 10, 107–118,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-8018(83)90017-3,
1983. a
Toba, Y.: Local balance in the air-sea boundary processes – I. on the growth
process of wind waves, J. Oceanogr. Soc. Jpn.,
28, 109–120, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02109772, 1972. a
Toba, Y.: Local balance in the air-sea boundary processes – III. On the
Spectrum of Wind Waves, J. Oceanogr. Soc. Jpn., 29,
209–220, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02108528, 1973.
a
Tuomi, L., Kahma, K. K., and Pettersson, H.: Wave hindcast statistics in the
seasonally ice-covered Baltic Sea, Boreal Environ. Res., 16,
451–472, 2011. a
Tuomi, L., Pettersson, H., Fortelius, C., Tikka, K., Björkqvist, J.-V.,
and Kahma, K. K.: Wave modelling in archipelagos, Coast. Eng., 83,
205–220, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2013.10.011,
2014. a
van der Westhuysen, A. J., van Dongeren, A. R., Groeneweg, J., van Vledder,
G. P., Peters, H., Gautier, C., and van Nieuwkoop, J. C.: Improvements in
spectral wave modeling in tidal inlet seas, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 117, 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007837, 2012. a
Vandever, J. P., Siegel, E. M., Brubaker, J. M., and Friedrichs, C. T.:
Influence of Spectral Width on Wave Height Parameter Estimates in Coastal
Environments, J. Waterw. Port Coast.,
134, 187–194, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(2008)134:3(187),
2008. a, b, c
Young, I. R.: The determination of confidence limits associated with estimates
of the spectral peak frequency, Ocean Eng., 22, 669–686,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-8018(95)00002-3, 1995. a, b, c
Short summary
In this paper we present wave buoy measurements from the Finnish archipelago. The properties of the waves inside the archipelago differed from waves in the open sea because of the sheltering effect of the islands. In the archipelago the highest single wave was, on average, only 1.58 times the significant wave height, which is lower than what is predicted by previous research. A more robust way to calculate the wave frequency in the complex archipelago conditions was proposed.
In this paper we present wave buoy measurements from the Finnish archipelago. The properties of...