New observations were made in the western region of Liverpool Bay, UK, in the eastern Irish Sea during September 2022 (Fig. a, b). This shallow region experiences very large tides in the form of a semi-diurnal standing wave, with spring ranges at Liverpool approaching 10 m and strong currents that frequently exceed 1 ms-1 and which, away from the region of freshwater influence, maintain a well-mixed water column e.g..

High-resolution measurements were made x= 41 m northwest of a D= 4.7 m diameter monopile of the Rhyl Flats offshore wind farm (OWF) in Liverpool Bay (53.38922° N, 3.6866° W); this equates to a non-dimensional distance x/D of 8.7 (Fig. b, c). The location was selected so that, during the flood tide, it was upstream of the monopile and experienced natural background flows, whereas, during the ebb, it was downstream of the monopile within the wake. During the observations, the water depth varied between 12.5 and 21 m during peak spring tides. The depth-averaged flow velocities confirm the rectilinear nature of the tidal flows (Fig. a). The dominant easterly component of the flood peaked at 0.8 ms-1; the ebb tides were weaker, reaching -0.6 ms-1, and showed greater scatter, as also observed at a nearby location by . The cylinder Reynolds number Red, 1Red=u∞dν, where u∞ is the freestream flow velocity and ν is the kinematic viscosity (1.36 × 10⁻⁶ m2s-1), was O(104-106) for the range of observed depth-averaged flood tide velocities (Fig. b). The transition to the turbulent critical flow regime around a cylinder and the formation of an asymmetric Karman vortex (KV) lee wake begins at Red≳2×105, which equates to a minimum velocity of 0.06 ms-1, and at Red≳5×105, a further transition to the super-critical flow regime and a symmetrical KV wake occurs e.g.. We therefore expect to observe a turbulent symmetric KV wake in the lee of the monopile for the majority of the survey. The seabed was composed of rippled sand with a median grain size of d50=0.25 mm, determined by standard sieve analysis of multiple seabed grab samples. Following the method of , the seabed roughness height was found to be kb= 0.122 m, including both grain and bedform roughness elements. Rock scour protection is deployed up to a diameter of ∼ 20 m in the immediate area surrounding the base of the monopile.

Direct measurements of the wave field were obtained from the nearby Rhyl Flats wave buoy (53.38241° N, 3.6062° W; ). The wave height and period were typically less than Hs= 1 m and Tz= 4 s, respectively, but peaked at Hs= 1.5 m and Tz= 4.5 s during 15–16 September (Fig. d). In this shallow, tidally energetic region, the water column generally remains well-mixed see. No profiles of water temperatures were recorded, but time series of surface and bottom temperatures recorded nearby during 2018 indicate that thermal stratification typically only occurs during peak neap tide conditions during the months of June–July.

A Nortek Signature 1000 five-beam acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) was installed on a bed-mounted frame and profiled the water column within 44 bins of 0.5 m thickness; the centre of the lowest bin was at z= 0.8 m above the seabed. The instrument heading was 220°, with the plane of beams 2 and 4 aligned with the streamwise current; the pitch and roll of the instrument on the seabed were -0.5 and 5.3°, respectively. The ADCP recorded along-beam velocities with a ping rate of 8 Hz and operated in burst mode, collecting 2048 samples at the start of each hour. The Doppler noise level was reported by the instrument as σN= 0.016 ms-1, as configured for this deployment.

The dissipation rate (ε5) of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) was estimated from the along-beam velocities of the vertical fifth beam of the ADCP using the structure function method . In the presence of surface gravity waves, the vertical gradient in wave orbital velocity will bias the along-beam velocities, and we use the modified approach of to remove this bias (Eq.  in the Appendix).

The Reynolds stresses were estimated using the variance method , extended by for a five-beam ADCP and including non-zero pitch and roll. The fifth beam provides an independent measure of the vertical velocity w and allows the stress components to be estimated with a reduced bias because the approximation due to the orthogonal beam is removed. The coordinate system was rotated to provide the streamwise (u′w′‾), cross-stream (v′w′‾) and vertical stresses (w′w′‾).

In a well-mixed tidally dominated environment, TKE production P is primarily achieved through energy transfer from the mean flow to turbulence via shear at the seabed; the buoyancy term can be neglected. P was estimated from the Reynolds stresses and the mean velocity vertical shear e.g..

The principal environmental parameters measured adjacently to the monopile are shown in Fig. . The profile of the mean streamwise velocity Ux‾ (Fig. a) indicates that the semi-diurnal tidal wave is standing and exhibits strong semi-diurnal and spring–neap variations. The largest velocities are observed during the peak spring tides (+0.8, -0.6 ms-1) and are reduced to ±0.35 ms-1 during neaps.

The TKE dissipation rate ε5 (Fig. b) has both a spring–neap variation and a pronounced quarter-diurnal variation. During the flood, maximum values of ε5 are -4.5 log₁₀(Wkg-1) during springs and -5 log₁₀(Wkg-1) during neaps. In contrast, maximum ε5 during the ebb increases by almost 1 order of magnitude during springs (-3.7 log₁₀(Wkg-1)) and by half an order of magnitude during neaps. During spring tides, significant levels of ε5 are observed to occur through the full depth of the water column.

The TKE production rate P (Fig. c) follows a similar temporal pattern to ε5. During both phases of the tide, strong production (-4.5 log₁₀(Wkg-1)) consistent with shear at the seabed extends up to z≈3 m above the bed, but during the ebb, an additional vertical band of strong P is present through the full water column. At several points throughout the survey (e.g. 15–19 September), intense regions (>-4 log₁₀(Wkg-1)) of near-surface P occur, which propagate downwards into the water column to z= 10 m. Comparing these periods to the surface waves recorded at the nearby wave buoy (Fig. d), steep waves (Hs= 1.5 m, Tz= 4 s) are likely to be injecting TKE directly into the surface layers, contributing to P. This wave contamination is not observed in ε5 due to our use of the modified structure function (Eq. ).

To provide further insight into the distribution of turbulence in the water column and to identify the balance between seabed and water column processes, we explore three spring tidal cycles in greater detail and compare with theoretical scaling. Figure a highlights the significant flood–ebb asymmetry in the strength and spatial distribution of ε5. During the upstream (flood) phase, ε5 appears to be forced at the seabed and propagates vertically toward the surface as the flow accelerates before weakening prior to high water slack. In contrast, during the downstream (ebb) phase, high ε5 persists through the full water depth, with maximum values observed in the upper water column. This flood ebb asymmetry is unlikely to be attributable to tidal straining or convection because of the well-mixed nature of the environment. In Fig. b, we integrate ε5 across 2 m thick bands of the water column close to the seabed and near the sea surface and through the full water column. All three display a quarter-diurnal variation in ε5, but contrasting behaviour is seen at the seabed and near the surface during upstream and downstream phases. During the upstream phase, ε5 at the seabed exceeds that near the surface, but during the downstream phase, this pattern is reversed, and the difference between them is approximately twice as large. Integrating through the full depth of the water column, ε5 approaches being 1 order of magnitude greater during the downstream phase. We do note that ε5 is possibly underestimated at the seabed since, due to the requirement of a minimum of four bins for the regression in Eq. , the lower 2 m is excluded.

Following similarity theory, a local balance should exist between ε and P based on a constant-stress relationship, with the local production of turbulence by tidal shear at the seabed. This leads to a scaling factor εs=-u*3/κz, where u* is the friction velocity, calculated as u*=(τb/ρ)1/2 for bottom shear stress τb and seawater density ρ=1027 kgm-3, and κ is the von Karman constant (= 0.41). Here, we use the method of to compute the current-only τb,c with the measured bottom roughness length-scale kb= 0.122 m, accounting for both bedform and skin friction roughness. During the upstream phase (Fig. c), ε5 close to the seabed is in almost perfect balance with similarity theory, but, at the surface, it is approximately 20 % higher. During downstream conditions, ε5 is 1 and 1.5 orders of magnitude greater than predicted at the seabed and near the surface, respectively, and peaks prior to the occurrence of the strongest flows (mid-ebb); this likely reflects the addition of wake turbulence to the water column. The similarity scaling breaks down at slack water as ε5 is maintained despite the cessation of local production from the mean flow.

A flood-ebb asymmetry of P is clearly shown in Fig. d, which shows a consistent near-bed TKE production during both upstream and downstream flow phases and a strong production throughout the full water column during the downstream phase. Figure c integrates P into vertical zones and also shows the asymmetric flood–ebb behaviour, with greater downstream TKE production (P=-3.5 log₁₀(Wkg-1)) compared to during upstream conditions (P=-4.5 log₁₀(Wkg-1)). The difference between seabed and near-surface P is more variable, but, overall, we observe a trend of greater seabed production during upstream flows and greater near-surface production during downstream flows. When integrated through the full water column, P and ε5 are in close agreement in terms of magnitude and trend, and the observed budget ε5/P remains within 1 order of magnitude (Fig. c, red line).

The mean streamwise velocity Ux‾ highlights the clear differences between the background upstream flood–tide flows and the downstream wake-affected ebb (Fig. f). During the upstream phase, the characteristic tidal benthic boundary layer structure is evident, with the strongest flows at the surface, which are reduced towards the bed developing shear. During the downstream phase, the velocity magnitude is reduced by approximately 35 %, with the strongest flows occurring at mid-depth and shear developing close to the bed. In the upper water column, a significant velocity deficit indicates the presence of the monopile wake and is in-phase with the peaks in ε5 and P.

To provide insight into the effect of the monopile wake through the water column, we compute ensemble-averaged vertical profiles of mean velocity, stress and TKE dissipation rate (Fig. ). Vertical profiles at mid-flood and mid-ebb, when flow accelerations are expected to be minimal, were extracted from the seven spring tides between 9 and 13 September and were geometrically averaged in z/h space to account for tidal changes in water depth. During the upstream phase (flood), the mean velocity profile displays a logarithmic form and extends the full thickness of the water column, as expected in a system dominated by tidal shear at the seabed (Fig. a). The maximum values of the stress occur at or just above the seabed (Fig. b) and tend towards zero, moving away from the seabed ; an increase in stress is observed for z/h>0.65, which may be due to surface waves. Following , for our observed wave amplitude and period of ∼ 0.5 m and ∼ 4 s, respectively, we may expect a bias in the stress term close to the surface of ∼O(0.5) Nm-2, decreasing with depth to ∼O(0.05) Nm-2 at the bed, which is in close agreement with our observations.

During the downstream wake-affected ebb tide, a strong velocity deficit is present above z/h>0.5 (Fig. a), indicative of the core of the wake. The stress increases from minimum values near the seabed to extreme values at the surface, but there is also a region of highly variable stress at 0.1≤z/h≤0.3 (Fig. b). It is noteworthy that, for equivalent stages of the tide, whilst the downstream velocities are significantly weaker than during the upstream phase, the stresses are up to 6 times larger; this far exceeds the potential bias in the stress terms due to surface waves.

The profiles of ε5 display a similar upstream–downstream asymmetry compared to that of the stresses (Fig. c). Peak ε5 values occur during the downstream phase, with extreme values (-3.5 log₁₀(Wkg-1)) at z/h= 0.25 and above mid-depth z/h>0.50. Again, despite the stronger upstream velocities, ε5 is almost 1 order of magnitude weaker during the upstream phase, displaying maximum values close to the seabed and decreasing linearly up to the surface.

Stress at the seabed is often parameterised using the drag coefficient Cd and the quadratic stress law τb=ρCdU‾2 to relate the mean flow speed U‾ defined at some elevation above the seabed frequently z=1 m, e.g. directly to the turbulent stress. We compare the total shear stress τ=-ρu′w′‾2+v′w′‾2, averaged over the lowest 2 m of the water column, with the quadratic stress law evaluated at z= 1 m above the bed (Fig. d). Upstream (flood) and downstream (ebb) data are independently fitted to a straight line (both with R2∼ 0.7 and ∼ 270° of freedom) with significantly different slopes. This yields a downstream ebb drag coefficient of Cd,e=7.8×10-3, which is twice that observed during the upstream flood phase (Cd,f=3.5×10-3).

The eddy viscosity Nz relates the vertical velocity gradients to the horizontal stress and reflects the role of turbulent eddies in mediating the transfer of momentum. If we assume a steady-flow model where the velocity shear is described by ∂u/∂z=u*/κz and where the stress decreases linearly from its maximum value at the bed τb=-ρu*2 to zero at the surface, Nz takes a parabolic form : 2Nz=κu*z(1-zh). We compare Nz computed for the ensemble-averaged peak upstream and downstream tidal phases in Fig. e. During the upstream phase, although there is some significant deviation from the steady-flow model approaching the sea surface for z/h>0.6, the observations are consistent with the model in terms of both trend and magnitude. However, during the wake-affected ebb tide, Nz is almost 1 order of magnitude larger than the steady-flow model, and, although approximating a parabolic form at z/h<0.35, it rapidly increases in the upper water column between z/h=0.35 and z/h=0.6; this corresponds to the region where shear, stress and ε5 are observed to increase for the wake-affected flow in Fig. a–c and suggests that the monopile drives enhanced vertical mixing through the water column.

The present study utilises high-frequency five-beam ADCP data to provide turbulence metrics over multiple tidal cycles within the tidal wake 40 m downstream of an offshore wind turbine monopile. Observations of the TKE dissipation rate and Reynolds stresses have been combined with the mean velocity shear to provide new insight into the changes to the vertical structure of the water column inside and outside of the wake. Upstream of the monopile, these parameters generally accord to a classical depth-limited law-of-the-wall boundary layer, with peak values of mean velocity shear and stress close to the bed and correspondingly high rates of TKE production and dissipation that are balanced at the seabed (Fig. ). The reduction in ε5 moving away from the seabed indicates that the Kolmogorov length scale (ν3/ε)1/4 and, thus, the size of the energy-containing eddies are increasing as a function of κz. Downstream of the monopile within the wake, a strong velocity deficit forms in the upper half of the water column, and the production and dissipation rates of TKE deviate from theoretical similarity scaling and increase throughout the water column above the region of tidal shear in the bottom boundary layer (Fig. ). We have further tested the impact of these wake-generated variations on the seabed and on the vertical water column mixing and show that the seabed drag coefficient and the eddy viscosity, respectively, are enhanced.

The monopile spans the full depth of the water column and extracts momentum from the mean flow, which is transferred to TKE at a (large) scale similar to that of the monopile itself (4.7 m); this leads to the observed velocity deficit in the wake that advects downstream in a self-similar manner. In the present ebb-tide data, we observe that the velocity deficit is largely eliminated in the lower half of the water column (z/h≤0.5). This indicates that the high levels of shear and stress measured close to the bed, which result from the combination of natural small-scale eddy interactions and the additional TKE introduced by the monopile itself (Fig. ), provide an important restorative mechanism for the mean flow by eroding the wake as it is advected downstream . Further support for this argument is provided by the high rate of TKE dissipation ε5 also observed close to the bed.

Higher in the water column, the velocity deficit is maintained due to a reduction in the efficiency of the ambient flow in eroding the wake. First, the difference between the ambient flow and the velocity deficit is much greater due to the reduction in frictional drag from the seabed, and so the work required to restore the mean flow near the surface is therefore much greater. Second, we expect a decrease in the ambient shear and stress as the eddy length scale increases in proportion to κz to also reduce the rate at which the wake is eroded. The combination of these factors, as well as the continued addition of TKE from the deficit , leads to the maintenance of a region of elevated shear above z/h= 0.5 that is associated with very high stress and ε5, which is maximised at 0.5 ≤z/h≤0.7. Overall, this combination of seabed and water column factors suggests that wakes should persist for longer in environments with lower rates of background turbulence mixing, for example, deeper, less tidally energetic regions.

We show that the high levels of stress observed in the wake directly increase the drag coefficient at the seabed. Outside of the wake, Cd,f=3.5×10-3, which is comparable to standard values reported for sandy and sand–gravel seabed mixtures e.g., but this is more than doubled to Cd,e=7.8×10-3 within the wake. Unless this wake-enhanced transfer of momentum from the mean flow to turbulence is accounted for, shelf-scale models (e.g. Telemac, FVCOM) that generally use the quadratic stress law as the default method of estimating bed shear stress will under-predict seabed stress even if they include monopiles as point drag sources e.g.. The elevated Cd within the wake can be directly linked to enhanced sediment transport and observations of morphological change in the lee of monopiles. Wakes can modify the seabed, flattening bedforms by forcing a change towards an upper-stage plane bed regime, as observed at the Rhyl Flats OWF downstream of the monopile (Fig. c), and, in extreme cases, causing seabed scour, or they can force a live-bed regime to transition towards one that supports bedform development . At the array scale, wake formation will increase the spatial variability of the seabed morphology, change grain size mixtures and likely promote greater seabed heterogeneity; this can impact the make-up and functionality of the benthic ecosystem and feed up to higher trophic levels.

The wake enhances water column mixing by modifying the local momentum flux, and the eddy viscosity provides a useful concept for estimating wake-mixing efficiency and persistence by directly relating the mean flow gradients to the turbulent stresses. The magnitude of the eddy viscosity Nz is controlled by the interplay between the mean flow shear, the rate of recovery of the velocity deficit and the dissipation rate ε5. In the present data, the ADCP is located at x/D= 8.7, which is sufficiently far downstream of the monopile that the velocity deficit starts to recover, and, close to the seabed, where strong frictional drag and high ε5 occur, Nz is reduced. However, higher in the water column where the velocity deficit remains significant, the rate of transfer of momentum to TKE remains high relative to ε5, and strong Reynolds stresses are still generated, maximising Nz (Fig. ). As the velocity deficit continues to weaken moving downstream, we would expect Nz to decrease as ε5 drives the decay of the Reynolds stresses . The complex distribution of Nz through the wake-affected water column has significant implications for the inclusion of OWF turbulent wakes in large-scale shelf–sea models. The turbulence is sub-grid scale in these models, and the mixing processes are passed to some form of a generic turbulence closure model, which attempts to balance the production and dissipation of TKE and return this as an Nz value. In light of the many length scales introduced by the structures, robust datasets and fully resolved model simulations are first required to provide further insight into the physics of past flow structures, particularly in stratified regions.

The observed order of magnitude increase in mixing caused by the monopile is likely to have significant implications for the transition towards floating OWF structures in deeper seasonally stratified waters . In these regions, background mixing rates are low because the pycnocline isolates the surface from the bottom waters, which limits the flux of nutrients and oxygen that drives primary productivity . The addition of the high level of anthropogenic mixing caused by tidal flow past OWF structures to the stratified regions will result in a large relative increase in mixing compared to the background levels, potentially affecting the timing of the onset and breakdown of seasonal stratification , the strength of the stratification , and the mixed-layer depth ; combined, this could result in significant ecological impacts spanning multiple trophic levels from plankton to fish to top predators . However, wake-mixing dynamics in stratified fluid flows are presently poorly understood, and high-fidelity large eddy simulation modelling is necessary to capture the baroclinic and advective processes that are required in order to produce a generic wake parameterisation for broad implementation.