Introduction
Integrating stakeholder perspectives from outside academia is of increasing
importance in ocean and coastal science. The role of science in society has
changed considerably during recent decades. Scientists are increasingly
asked to consider the salience of their work in relation to the needs of the
public and its legitimacy among stakeholders beyond their scientific peers
(e.g. Cash et al., 2003; Welp et al., 2006; Allen et al., 2013; von Storch et al., 2015).
Knowledge on transdisciplinary approaches is considered to benefit
from project experiences (Jahn et al., 2012; Bergmann et al., 2016) and “more
guidance grounded in actual project experiences is needed” (DeLorme et al.,
2016). Thus, the purpose of this study is to convey first-hand experiences on
stakeholder interaction and transdisciplinary orientations from the Coastal
Observing System for Northern and Arctic Seas (COSYNA).
COSYNA was established in the German North Sea and off the coast of Spitsbergen to
describe, analyse, and predict the environmental status of coastal waters.
Combining observations, numerical modelling, data management, and outreach
activities, the system provides data and knowledge tools to help science,
public administration, industry, and the public make informed decisions (see
also Baschek et al., 2016).
The COSYNA mission meets the societal requirements for sustainable future
developments of marine and coastal regions as set forth, for example, by the
Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD; directive 2008/56/EC) and the
Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service, the latter
striving to implement services coupled with efficient downstream processing
to support marine applications. Using this approach, observation
methodologies developed in COSYNA support monitoring strategies and can
contribute to “Good Environmental Status” and sustainable development
of the North Sea. Because the North Sea is one of the most heavily used
coastal areas in the world, lessons learned in this region may serve as a
role model for similar challenges and interactions in other coastal regions
worldwide.
In order to ensure relevance and societal impact and to meet the various
requirements of different target groups, a broad range of activities for
knowledge transfer and stakeholder interaction was developed and pursued.
Stakeholder feedback was and is necessary to further improve the COSYNA
products.
The integrated COSYNA approach: combination of observations and
numerical modelling, data management, and stakeholder interactions (COSYNA
presentation; www.cosyna.de).
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While currently considerable expertise has been developed in delivering
services in other fields of natural science, such as in climate services
(McNie, 2013; Vaughan and Dessai, 2014; Bowyer et al., 2015), marine and
coastal products and services are still in their infancy (e.g. Kourafalou
et al., 2015a; von Storch et al., 2015). Societal benefits of coastal ocean
observing systems have, for example, been demonstrated in the USA to
support marine safety, water quality, and effective coastal management
decision-making (Buskey et al., 2015; Porter et al., 2015; Simoniello et al.,
2015). In Europe, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive provides the
background for supporting the need for stronger and more effective
oceanographic research interaction with the diverse (often conflicting) interest
groups, using various marine or coastal resources. With regard to the marine
area, collaborative research is most common in fisheries (e.g. Mackinson et al., 2010).
However, in the coastal area, we can still observe a mismatch
between knowledge production in academia and knowledge requests for solving
societal problems (Hoffman-Riem et al., 2008; Diedrich et al., 2010;
Kourafalou et al., 2015b).
In order to overcome this mismatch, products and services concerning the
state of the North Sea were developed for various users of oceanographic
data and forecasts (Fig. 1). COSYNA products range from time series at
various locations and regular maps of parameters, such as currents, waves,
salinity, temperature, chlorophyll, or oxygen, to routine short-term
forecasts (days) for these parameters.
Potential users include (but are not limited to) those from the fields science,
administration, renewable energies, tourism, and nature conservation. For
example, the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (Bundesamt für
Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie, BSH) measures and calculates sea surface
temperatures, waves, currents as well as current and wave predictions from
their operational observation and model systems and make them available to
the various users and the public. An improvement of these services is
considered through further development of COSYNA measurements and products.
This study, in particular, focuses on interest groups from the offshore wind
energy sector. Offshore wind energy farms are a recent addition to human
utilization in the North Sea, an area with strong offshore wind potential in
Europe. In the context of global climate change and in order to reduce
CO2 emissions resulting from human activities, the number and size of
offshore wind energy farms have significantly increased in recent years.
Germany's offshore wind farms generated 1.3 % of the overall energy
produced nationwide in 2015, a 550 % increase compared to a 0.2 %
contribution by offshore wind turbines in 2014
(http://www.offshorewind.biz/2015/12/21/; according to data from the
German Association of Energy and Water Industries). Currently there are
approximately 36 offshore wind farm projects either in operation (12), under
construction (5), or licensed (19) in the German North Sea
(http://www.wab.net/images/stories/Offshore_Wind_Farms_in_the_German_North_Sea.pdf).
As offshore wind energy is rapidly proliferating in Germany and Europe
(Deutscher Bundestag, 2000; Commission of the European Communities, 2007;
Pineda, 2015), and this development points to a global trend, businesses and
other stakeholders from the wind energy sector are important (potential)
users of oceanographic data and forecasts. The new and intensified use of
wind energy brings benefits and new challenges. The latter includes coping
with harsh environmental conditions in the North Sea and ensuring safe, but
efficient and effective maintenance and operation of the wind farms, while at
the same time minimizing the environmental impact. The potential influence of
offshore wind farms on North Sea ecosystems and the aim of preserving fragile
ambient ecosystems is not the subject of this study (see, e.g., Bailey et
al., 2014; Clark et al., 2014).
COSYNA product life cycle depicted for the COSYNA product
“Surface Current Fields in the German Bight” as an example: (a) initial
surveys reveal COSYNA's potential relevance, (b) the technological and mathematical realization provides optimized parameter fields
for currents, waves, temperature, etc., (c) the data are freely accessible
via the COSYNA data portal, (d) external evaluation of COSYNA
products,
(e) interviews and workshops with stakeholders from the offshore wind
sector,
(f) improved COSYNA products are available to users, (g) evaluation of
impact.
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In general terms, transdisciplinary approaches mean that researchers from
different academic disciplines work together with stakeholders. Different
intensities of interaction between science and stakeholders can be
differentiated; information, consultation, co-operation, collaboration, and
empowerment form a sequence from low to high intensity in transdisciplinary
approaches (Brinkmann et al., 2015; Stauffacher et al., 2008; Wiek, 2007).
There are numerous definitions for transdisciplinarity in literature, but a
generally accepted definition is still not available. Generally agreed upon
main features are addressing a real-world problem, integrating different
disciplines, and involvement of non-academic stakeholders (Bergmann et al.,
2016;
DeLorme et al., 2016; Jahn et al., 2012; Hirsch Hadorn et al., 2008).
Transdisciplinarity combines interdisciplinarity (collaboration between
researchers from different disciplines aimed at a synthesis and integration
of knowledge; Bernstein, 2015) and interactions with extra-academic interest
groups, for example from industry, governments, and non-governmental
organizations. Little experience in transdisciplinary approaches exists in
coastal research. Marine or coastal topics are, for example, lacking in the
Handbook of Transdisciplinary Research (Hirsch Hadorn et al., 2008). However, some overlapping of
transdisciplinarity and the current flourishing field of citizen science
exists, as both are dealing with participation of non-scientists or
non-academic scientists. In recent years, thousands of volunteers (“citizen
scientists”) have participated in marine research activities (Thiel et al.,
2014). Citizen science can support integration in transdisciplinary
endeavours (Pettibone and Lux, 2015).
In terms of stakeholder interactions, it is helpful to distinguish between
the product (e.g. data products or new technologies, concerning the
“what?”) and the process (dealing with the “how?”). While this study
tackles both these components, it focuses, however, on the process. For
improving the process, it is essential to answer the question of whether
stakeholder interactions did in fact work and achieve their goals. Agreed
upon processes for collaboration, in particular in the field of coastal
ocean observing systems, are still fragmentary (e.g. Liu et al., 2015;
DeLorme et al., 2016). Quality standards and evaluation criteria for
transdisciplinary processes are widely lacking (e.g. Jahn et al., 2012). As
evaluation criteria for the impact of (successful) stakeholder interactions
are absolutely essential, they are a matter of active discussion. Outcomes of
this study are expected to support criteria development and contribute to
the ongoing discussion.
Thus, the focus of the study is 3-fold:
to improve the COSYNA products by stakeholder interaction;
to share a practice example on transdisciplinary orientations in coastal
research;
to contribute to criteria development for impact evaluation.
The COSYNA product life cycle
In order to identify and depict those phases of the COSYNA product
development procedure that are the most relevant for stakeholder interaction, an
iterative multi-step cycle was developed. The conceptual framework is based
on two approaches used in business:
According to the product life concept (usually referred to as a life
cycle, e.g. Rebitzer et al., 2004) every product has a “life”, starting
with design and development, followed by production, provision and use, and
end-of-life activities. The development of a pre-operational integrated
COSYNA product comprises different aspects and can be depicted as the
“COSYNA product life cycle” (Fig. 2): while the product realization (B, C)
is mainly a technological and mathematical challenge, development of the product
idea (A), product evaluation (D), interviews, workshops (E), and impact
evaluation (G) require stakeholder interaction. Effort at these phases of
the product life cycle is required to initiate and maintain a two-way
information flow, where potential users and external evaluators provide
feedback. The product application (F) in political or management decisions
by authorities, enterprises, and other users is subject to other driving
forces and not part of COSYNA. In order to improve the products and to
ensure they are useful and applicable, interaction with (potential) users was
established step-by-step.
The iterative management method PDCA (plan–do–check–act or
plan–do–check–adjust) is a tool to incorporate feedback and to break down
the development, implementation, and continuous improvement of processes or
products into small manageable steps. When applied to the life cycle of
coastal scientific products, such as COSYNA products, stakeholder
interaction would ideally be assessed in the following way. The first step
would be to identify possible stakeholders by means of a stakeholder mapping
exercise. During the initial phase of problem definition, consensus should
be reached on the research question and the objectives of the project by all
parties concerned, for example through a series of stakeholder workshops. It is
considered essential that scientists and practitioners contribute their
specific knowledge and speak to each other as equals. After common
understanding is achieved during the “planning” phase,
potential solutions should be generated and tested on a small scale (“do”
phase). For an initiative such as COSYNA, this means starting with the
development of one typical product. Thus, measuring and modelling concepts
and devices are developed and established, and a parameter field, for example
current fields in the German Bight, is provided at a pre-operational level.
During the “check” phase, potential users would be asked for
evaluation of and feedback on the pre-operational product. Assessment data
should be gathered on a statistically sound basis with potential users from
different groups. However, lack of resources often constrains the ideal
number of stakeholders involved and the activities that can be carried
out. The results of structured quantitative and qualitative analyses should
be fed back into the development cycle, meaning that aspects mentioned by
potential users should really influence further product development. The
“do” and “check” phases could be repeated several times to polish the
product and its usability until all the stakeholders agree on the usefulness
of the final product. Finally, the improved solution is fully implemented
(“act”). Any evaluation of products and stakeholder
processes requires success criteria and indicators that need to be set in
advance, ideally with stakeholders.
In practice, the steps depicted in Fig. 2 and described in detail in the
following sections were performed during the development of an integrated
pre-operational COSYNA product.
The steps of the “COSYNA product life cycle” in practice
The COSYNA stakeholder interaction concept follows a structured process
encompassing a broad range of different interaction activities. The
stakeholder interaction process continued as the initiative progressed and
developed further with the development of the products. As is well known for
projects, interactions in the beginning had more influence on the design of
the whole COSYNA initiative than later steps. During the initial phases, data
demands related to, e.g., parameters, accuracy, data resolution, and the design
of measurements and approaches were of greater focus. During later stages,
feedback of (potential) users on the pre-operational products, data
presentation in the data portal, and the user interface played a more
important role. Later, during the implementation phase, interaction
activities concentrated on fine tuning and improving the usability of the
products.
During the course of the project, the range of stakeholders changed; i.e. the range of interest groups addressed was broad in the
beginning and later increasingly focused on key stakeholders. However, all
the interest groups involved during the different phases contributed their
specific practitioners' experiences, and their specific demands regarding
oceanographic data products, concerning parameters, types, resolution,
etc. Thus, real-world questions were taken into account in the design of
the COSYNA initiative.
COSYNA product “Surface Current Fields in the German
Bight” (snapshot 4–6 April 2016, COSYNA data portal, based on the
algorithm described in Stanev et al., 2015).
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Initial surveys (A)
International dimension
A feasibility study on COSYNA's international dimension (Laane, 2010; HZG
internal report) was conducted with special attention to the planned
networking activities and to assess the international scientific contacts
and connections with networks, organizations, and projects. The study stated
that “coastal observatories are nowadays the backbone for scientific
exploration, operational information and management of coastal ecosystems”
and that COSYNA fits very well within the worldwide development of coastal
observatories. According to the study, the COSYNA strategy to improve and
streamline access to high-quality marine data should be completed with
tailor-made communication plans for communicating to the various end users.
The study concludes that COSYNA's goal, to collect information and data to
understand the short and long-term dynamics in coastal ecosystems, fulfils
the need of international EU directives, conventions, and agreements.
Information on user requirements at a European level was also available from
the “Operational Oceanography: Data Requirements Survey” (sample from 155
organizations in six countries; Fischer and Flemming, 1999) conducted by the
association of European national agencies for developing operational
oceanographic systems and services in European seas (European Global Ocean Observing System, EuroGOOS). COSYNA
products were to cover these requirements to a large extent. This applies to
the parameters measured (e.g. current, waves, sea surface temperature,
salinity, wind, bathymetry, sediment, and some biogeochemical parameters),
the geographical coverage (coastal and shelf areas), the spatial (and
temporal) resolution, and the product types, such as processed data,
hindcasts, and forecasts.
Requirements of potential national and regional user groups
During COSYNA's early stages, a second survey provided information on the
specific demands and requirements of potential national and regional user
groups in the northern German coastal area (Ahrendt and Wesnigk, 2009; HZG
internal report). The initial survey addressed a broad range of
organizations including science (universities and other research
institutions), federal and state authorities, public administration,
tourism, nature conservation, international and regional NGOs, private
enterprises, fishermen, consulting groups, engineering companies, etc. The
interviewees were categorized to represent four interest groups, namely
(number of responses in parenthesis) authorities (10); nature conservation,
tourism, and other NGOs (10); science (universities and other research
institutions, 18); and businesses (with focus on offshore wind energy, 21).
A majority of the interviewees (71 %) use external data from other
organizations with a preference for processed (30 %) and cleansed data
(31 %) over raw data. The study identified meteorological data, currents,
waves, bathymetry, turbidity, and water temperature as the most useful
parameters to potential national and regional users. Data on salinity,
nutrients, oxygen, chlorophyll, and higher trophic levels (marine mammals,
fish, birds) were also often in demand. Forecasts and simulations (81 %),
oceanographic modelling data (76 %), meteorological modelling data,
reconstructions of storm surges, waves, water level, and mathematical
modelling of habitats were in high demand (for more details see Eschenbach,
2013). Thus, the COSYNA approach combining measurements and modelling was
designed to meet these requirements. In accordance with the outcomes of the
survey, the first COSYNA products to be realized were maps and forecasts of
surface current fields in the German Bight. Data products on waves,
temperature, and salinity were next in COSYNA's portfolio.
The technological and mathematical realization provides optimized
parameter fields (B)
The COSYNA product “Surface Current Fields in the German Bight” may serve
as an example (for details on measurements, modelling, and data assimilation;
see Schulz-Stellenfleth et al., 2010; Stanev et al., 2011, 2015). The product “Surface Current Fields in the German Bight” is the
first pre-operational analysis system for surface currents based on
real-time high frequency (HF) radar data. Currents are provided in real time, for the last
18 h and as a 6 h forecast. The maps and forecasts are
updated hourly. The resolution in the area of the German Bight is 1 km and
the product deviation from the measured HF-radar current data is typically
about 0.1 m s-1, with large regional deviations
The data are made freely accessible via the COSYNA data portal
(C)
The COSYNA data portal (codm.hzg.de; see also www.cosyna.de) presents all
COSYNA data and metadata comprehensively, free of charge and is made
available to everyone. The data portal serves as the user interface for data
retrieval and presentation and aims at multi-purpose data use. The user can
select parameter, data sources, time range, and presentation type (overlay
raster map or time-series diagram) and can download the selected data. Thus,
for example, maps of current fields can be inspected and time series of
current maps (in netCDF format) are publicly available for download. For
details about the numerous distinctive features of the COSYNA data portal,
see Breitbach et al. (2016).
External evaluation of COSYNA products (D)
After realization but before implementation of the first product,
“Pre-operational Surface Current Fields”, and during detailed planning of
the second product, “Temperature and Salinity”, a group of national and
international evaluators were asked for their expert opinion on the COSYNA
products. The evaluators were selected according to the outcomes of the
initial surveys. These showed that NGOs or fishermen were less interested in
oceanographic data, such as currents and waves, but that scientists were a
priority user group. Therefore, four evaluators were chosen, representing
the user groups of administration, private enterprise, and science. The two
science representatives substantially differ in their fields of interest:
(1) numerical ocean models and data assimilation, and (2) coastal
observation with the aim of understanding the system and the influences of
forcing factors.
Evaluator feedback on the product “Pre-operational Surface Current
Fields” (values from 1: bad/low to 5: good/high).
Administration
Private
Science1
Science2
enterprises
Scientific–technical value
5
5
3
5
Information
4
4
4
4
Innovation
4
4
3
5
Cost/benefit
3
4
4
–
Operating reliability
4
4
3
4
User interface
3
3
4
–
Match user needs
4
3
4
–
The evaluators were asked to fill a multiple choice questionnaire, to
provide detailed written statements, and to present and discuss their
results during a 1-day workshop. The criteria for the evaluation were
scientific value, informational value (as compared with other existing
informational sources), innovative leap, potential users and target groups,
cost/benefit aspects, operating reliability/availability, and user
interface/operability of the COSYNA products, in particular of the current
product.
The evaluators identified the scientific–technical value as high and the
informational value and innovative leap as above average, and they saw proper
potential applications and usages. They recommended, however, improvement of
the user interface (Table 1). Consequently, efforts were made to achieve more
user-friendly data presentations and download possibilities. New features
increased the usability of the data portal (see Sect. 3.3, and Breitbach
et al., 2016).
Interviews and workshops with stakeholders: case study “offshore
wind energy” (E)
During implementation, COSYNA interacted with different interest groups in
order to support the applicability and usability of its products. This
study, in particular, focuses on interest groups from the offshore wind
energy sector. Planning, construction, and operation of offshore wind farms
as well as maintenance procedures under difficult weather and oceanographic
conditions in the North Sea might considerably profit from COSYNA products
on currents and waves. The offshore wind energy sector is multi-disciplinary
and heterogeneous in itself, including specialists of very different fields,
such as energy companies, insurance companies, specialists for installation
ships or offshore converters, consultants, or divers. As the interaction with
stakeholders from the offshore wind sector may serve as a case study, it is
described in detail in the following. The focus is on interviews and
workshops.
Jointly and in co-operation with the BSH and the German Weather Service (DWD), we contacted offshore
wind energy organizations, such as operators, consultants, insurance
companies, and others, aiming at a two-way information flow, co-operation, or
collaboration. The purpose of the interaction with stakeholders from the
offshore wind energy sector from our point of view was 3-fold: (1) first,
to improve existing COSYNA products through interaction with potential
users, to demonstrate their applicability for real-life situations, and to
gather further information on products to be developed (e.g. information on
parameters, spatial and temporal resolution, and accuracy). (2) Second, we
proposed to exchange existing data with wind farm operators for mutual
benefit. (3) The third idea was to possibly take measurements within wind
farms and use these measurements to obtain data that are otherwise rarely
available to science.
As the wind energy industries could likewise benefit from our measurements,
models, and improved analysis and prognosis tools as well as from obtaining
weather and oceanographic data free of cost, we expected to generate a
win–win situation.
The following major efforts were undertaken to establish and maintain
interactions with potential COSYNA product users from the offshore wind
energy sector:
participation in offshore wind exhibitions and public events to make
contacts;
first series of interviews in order to prepare for the first workshop;
realization of a user workshop with approximately 100 participants;
evaluation of the workshop outcomes and post-processing (wrap up);
second series of interviews in order to prepare for the second, more
topic-oriented workshop;
realization of the second workshop with a limited number of participants and
focusing on currents and waves;
meetings with representatives of offshore wind energy companies to arrange
concrete collaborations;
evaluation of the outcomes of the interaction efforts.
The listed efforts were undertaken jointly and in very fruitful co-operation
with the BSH and the DWD. In the following, I focus on the interviews and
workshops.
Interviews
Through personal contacts, literature, and internet research, potential
interested parties from the offshore wind energy industrial sector were
identified. The first series of interviews was conducted with
representatives of nine companies from the construction, operation and
maintenance, and consulting fields. The second series comprised seven
interviews with selected participants of the first workshop. All the
interviews were guideline based and in-depth. In preparation of the actual
interviews a set of potential guiding questions was identified. During the
interviews, the initial and guiding questions were tailored according to the
interviewees. Their answers in large parts shaped subsequent questions. The
interviews were conducted face-to-face or (a few) via phone, and all of them
took approximately 1 h or more. The information gathered during the
interviews was compiled and analysed. The general interviewing process
followed the steps identified by Kvale (1994).
Concerning data use and requirements, major results of the first series of
interviews showed that most enterprises use two or more weather forecasts,
including oceanographic data, and would be interested in additional high-quality
and freely available data. Most business enterprises working in the
offshore wind sector have their own measurement equipment in situ. This is
especially true for those who employ workers, such as divers, who vitally
depend on these measurements.
Data use and requirements of the different companies span a wide range, from
raw to processed and evaluated data in various formats, which should be
provided through a variety of user interfaces. Forecasts for several hours
were mentioned as most welcome. Forecasts of extreme events, e.g. storm
surges, were also requested. In general, consistent and complete data sets
(without gaps) are essential. In addition, accurate and reliable data are
particularly needed when weather and oceanographic conditions, such as wave
heights, impede continuation of work. Under these circumstances, data
quality is a liability issue.
User-friendly interfaces with elaborated filter functions would be helpful.
Time slots with certain weather conditions should easily be identified; for
example, a 6 h time slot with wave heights below 2.5 m might be necessary
for certain maintenance operations. Several interviewees expressed a
considerable willingness for co-operation concerning oceanographic
measurements within wind farms and data exchange.
Feedback sheet as an example.
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From the second series of interviews, after the first workshop and in
preparation for the second workshop, a considerable demand for high-quality
meteorological and oceanographic data and forecasts was confirmed. Data on
current and wind fields are of special importance. The data should be
provided 24 hours a day and 7 days a week (24/7) and with warranty. Some companies seriously considered
exchanging their data for COSYNA and BSH data and allowing measurements
within the wind farms.
Workshops
As we learned from the interviews that Environmental Protection, Health
Management and Safety (EHS) plays a pivotal role, the safety aspect became an
integral part of the first workshop entitled “New Products for Offshore
Wind Energy Support. More Safety and Efficiency through Detailed Condition
Assessment and Predictions”. The program comprised the four sections
introduction, risk assessment, state description, and
forecasts, with each section covering the presentation of (scientific) data
products, related user statements, and discussion. In total, 92 representatives
from 33 different organizations participated: scientists,
engineers, representatives of regulatory bodies, insurance companies, and
offshore wind energy enterprises discussed questions concerning measurements
and forecasts of currents, winds, and waves. The feedback on the workshop,
gathered via feedback sheets (Fig. 4) was very positive. For example, most
participants intended to use the data products presented at the workshops in
future. It was suggested that the subsequent meetings should allow more time
for discussion, resulting in “real” workshops. Thus, the second workshop
was designed to be product-oriented and only a limited number of
participants were invited to participate, ensuring a focus on discussions.
The topical focus was on “Waves and Currents - Measurements and Forecasts”.
Follow-up meetings with representatives of individual enterprises promised
collaboration and possibilities for undertaking measurements within a wind
farm. Unfortunately, before becoming reality, the wind energy firms halted
these collaborative endeavours due to internal constraints.
To summarize and rate the outcomes of the case study for COSYNA purposes,
the most important finding was that COSYNA current and wave data and, in
particular, forecasts would be the most welcome output. From the interviews
and the workshops, we found that, for the offshore wind energy sector, the
most interesting questions in COSYNA context are when do currents, waves,
and winds enable safe construction and maintenance operations; can time slots
with certain suitable weather and ocean conditions, i.e. wave height
< 2.5 m, be forecasted with sufficient accuracy; what are the sea and
wave conditions along the shipping routes that will be regularly travelled
to perform maintenance of realized or planned offshore wind farms; and can new
technologies or observational concepts be deployed to protect wind turbines
in case of sudden wind gusts. Safety of operations emerged as the overarching
issue, meaning that reliability and completeness of data sets are
indispensable – a requirement to be met by 24/7 services. With respect to
usability, a good user interface is essential, although the different
specifications for “good” cannot easily be served by a single approach. In
the context of collaboration, many enterprises would welcome data exchange
and even joint measurements in wind farms were generally considered
possible. Specific endeavours, however, were blocked.
Impact evaluation (G)
Finally, the question is how to measure the impact of data products for
users or for society. In order to evaluate whether and when the COSYNA
oceanographic products as well as the stakeholder interaction process were
more or less successful, we used direct and indirect indicators. In order to
assess the interaction process, direct feedback from involved
stakeholders was gathered via evaluation and feedback sheets, during
interviews and workshops. The unforeseen high participation numbers in the
workshops also indicate a successful interaction process.
COSYNA data download sorted by user categories (November 2014
to March 2016; data provided by G. Breitbach).
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Concerning the products, the demands derived from the initial surveys and
interviews are generally met by COSYNA observational and modelled data,
which have attained a high scientific standard and provide a high degree of
accuracy. Concerning data availability, (potential) users from the offshore
wind energy sector referred to continuity and reliability as essential.
COSYNA provides free public access to its data and metadata. As bound into
the research context, it cannot, however, guarantee that data are available
24/7 without fail. The
COSYNA Data Disclaimer states “no warranty is made, expressed, or implied,
regarding the accuracy or validity of the data, or regarding the suitability
of the data for any particular application”.
We know from the recently introduced COSYNA data portal user registration
that users from industry and private enterprises (small and medium
enterprises, SME) account only for a small portion of the data download
(Fig. 5). As COSYNA is committed to an open data policy and does not collect
any personal user data, any information on users is limited to download
rates and information provided voluntarily on user categories. On average,
ca. 19 GB of COSYNA data were downloaded per month from November 2014 to
March 2016. Users from the category of science downloaded the highest
proportion of data, followed by users from “administration”.
During some months, however, other user groups used COSYNA data for specific
purposes. In December 2015, for example, private enterprises used data to
validate their model. Whether the greater diversity of data users in
December 2014 is a direct result of the workshops cannot be validated.
Discussion
COSYNA represents scientific knowledge production in the field of coastal
research; however, according to the societal demands, e.g. reflected by the
mission of the Helmholtz Association (www.helmholtz.de/en/), it must also
meet knowledge requests for solving societal problems. The type of topics
addressed in COSYNA, i.e. coastal oceanographic research, is still new to
transdisciplinary approaches. Thus, these studies are at the interface of
transdisciplinary and coastal science research, and the COSYNA experiences
can contribute new practical examples to both fields.
The usability of the products
The utility of products in large part is a question of the parameter, scale,
accuracy, and availability fit. In order to gather the respective information
on (potential) user demands and to improve the products accordingly, a
dialogue with interest groups is indispensable. From the various surveys and
stakeholder interactions it is clear that there is a considerable demand
for meteorological and oceanographic data and forecasts, and COSYNA meets
these requirements well. COSYNA products can support different interest
groups from the offshore wind sector in overcoming the challenges related to
ensuring safe, efficient, and effective maintenance and operation of the
wind farms. On the other hand, from the case study, it can be concluded that
COSYNA products in their recent form do not completely fit the specific
demands of the offshore wind sector. These findings are in agreement with
the fact that COSYNA products are mainly downloaded from the data portal by
users from science, and to a lesser extent by those from administration and
rarely from business enterprises.
As COSYNA products are developed in a research context, they cannot meet the
whole palette of users' wishes and demands. For example, they cannot be
provided 24/7 and with warranty (as, for example, required by the offshore
wind energy sector). Certainly, asymmetries exist in perspective, functions,
and agendas between scientists and business enterprises. The primary
institutional commitment of scientists in traditional academia is to produce
data that can be published and used for further research in the
international scientific community, whereas enterprises seek economically sound
solutions (see also Wiek, 2007).
The aim of a transdisciplinary approach is to open up traditional roles.
User-oriented approaches became common, for example, in the field of climate
research. The term “climate services” was used for the “generation,
provision, and contextualization of information and knowledge derived from
climate research for decision-making at all levels of society” (Vaughan
and Dessai, 2014). The concept of “products” and “services” is closely
aligned, but there is a distinct difference: products are tangible
(including digital) outputs, but a service produces an intangible benefit
and satisfies an identified need. The roles in the science–society system
should be considered in discussion of achievements and further desirable
products and services. COSYNA develops data and data products and provides
these products on a pre-operational level to be of use for multiple interest
groups in science, industry, agencies, politics, environmental protection, or
the public. On the other hand, the national monitoring authorities, such as
the BSH, provide services working in an
operational mode (24/7). COSYNA research activities are regarded as
improving these services; the COSYNA pre-operational products can be taken
over and utilized on an operational basis by the government agencies. Due to
their “public status”, neither COSYNA nor national monitoring authorities
can offer concrete services for single enterprises in the offshore wind
energy sector – or any other sector.
In accordance with the PDCA approach and the life cycle concept, the COSYNA
products and their presentations are still undergoing improvement to attract
more/further interest as well as to be more useful to (potential) users. For
example, potential benefits can be assumed for resource management and
sustainable development of the North Sea (according to MSFD).
The stakeholder process – push or pull strategy?
During the process studied here, a complete set of stakeholder interactions
was applied, ranging from initial situational analysis through external
evaluation, interviews, and workshops with potential users, to meetings
focused on data exchange and joint measurements. Through the various
interactions with different stakeholders the COSYNA products could be
improved substantially. In addition, especially the interaction with the key
stakeholders from the offshore energy sector led to essential insights into
the demands and constraints concerning the use and usability of COSYNA
products, and identified new research questions. Although the most
challenging steps of co-operation or collaboration could not be achieved,
the entire process of stakeholder interaction should be considered
successful.
Different interaction intensities, such as “information”, “consultation”,
and “co-operation” are possible between science and stakeholders
(Brinkmann et al., 2015; Stauffacher et al., 2008; Wiek, 2007). One-way
information from COSYNA to the stakeholders was provided via traditional
media, such as brochures, flyers, website, attendance, booths at
exhibitions, and presentations during workshops. The “consultation”
encompasses one-way communication through questionnaires/surveys and was
specifically addressed through face-to-face interviews. Requirements for
content and presentation of data products from the offshore side and the
capabilities of the coastal science side were successfully worked out. The
subsequent steps, “co-operation” and “collaboration”, focus on exchange.
In one case, decisions are made by the scientific partner and in the other,
both partners collaborate equally. Co-operation or collaboration was the aim
in follow-up meetings, concretely focusing on data exchange between COSYNA
and offshore wind enterprises and on joint measuring activities within wind
farms. Internal constraints of the offshore wind energy sector, however,
prevented the interaction process from being truly collaborative.
Revisiting the ideal assessment design of stakeholder interaction outlined
above, we acknowledge that this ideal was not fully achieved for the COSYNA
products. This is partly due to limited resources, but also to the fact that
the products developed by a research institute cannot always be tailored to
the specific demands of every individual user. It would have been useful to
include a larger number of different stakeholders in the later stages of the
process, however, this was not possible due to resource constraints.
COSYNA experiences underpin the fact that long-term contacts are necessary
to allow for intensification of stakeholder involvement and to enable
co-operation or collaboration. Stakeholder interaction has so far applied
more or less a “push” strategy, where the idea is to promote products by
pushing them toward people. In order to adopt the idea of pull marketing (to
establish a loyal following and draw consumers to the products), long-term
contacts with stakeholders and potential users of science products need to
be established.
Contribution to impact evaluation – “the product has to be
attractive for the stakeholder, not only for the scientist”
COSYNA has articulated high expectations for scientific and societal impact.
A major question still remains: how can the impact be assessed and what
might be the possible criteria for success.
Certainly, assessment of success strictly depends on what is considered
successful as a scientific research undertaking. The criteria are, or seem
to be, clear as long as only the closed system of traditional academia is
taken into consideration; the main or single criterion is the number of
peer-reviewed scientific articles in international English-speaking journals
(see also Wiek, 2007). In addition, the perception of what would constitute
success of a research project does not only vary between scientists and
stakeholders, but also may considerably differ between scientific peers
(e.g. Allen et al., 2013). However, the scope of impact evaluation of
research has become wider and the societal impact of research is an
increasingly important factor (e.g. Godin and Doré, 2007; Bornmann, 2012,
2013). For transdisciplinary approaches, the relationship between different
collaborative methods, processes, or concepts and the desired effects are
less clear. Quality standards and evaluation criteria are a matter of
research and discussion in the respective scientific communities (e.g.
Bergmann et al., 2016). Experiences from projects are considered to
contribute to their development and establishment. In COSYNA, data download
values are used to indicate application of data (for example for model
validation, December 2015). The level of awareness (indicated by number of
visits to the website) and the rate of data download can be considered
preconditions for usage and societal impact of COSYNA data products. Whether
or not the data downloaded are really used and helpful in supporting
decision-making cannot be assessed in this study. It is, however, the
subject of ongoing research and discussion.
In the context of COSYNA and partner and predecessor projects, a number of
initiatives can be identified, where success and impact of oceanographic
science research efforts can be demonstrated. The one thing that all these successful
initiatives have in common is that stakeholders were integrated from the
beginning of the project. Some examples include
Technological developments, such as new (automated) sensors or underwater
node technologies, have been handed over to other institutions for regular
measurements (Marine Environmental Remote-controlled Measuring and
Integrated Detection, MERMAID; Contaminants and Nutrients in Variable Sea
Areas, CANVAS).
In order to improve their regular monitoring, national authorities have
adopted observation strategies that are based on a scientifically improved
understanding of the ecosystems (MERMAID, CANVAS; Knauth et al., 1997; Nies et al., 1999).
Calibration and maintenance procedures have been harmonized within the
framework of a joint EU project and are now used by a broad range of
European institutions (JERICO, http://www.jerico-fp7.eu/; Petihakis et al.,
2015).
Co-operation exists with operational agencies to improve ocean wave
forecasting services (e.g. Behrens, 2015).
With the model-based database coastDat, many aspects of marine climate
(storms, waves, surges, etc.) over many decades are reconstructed. The
data set is used by more than 80 users with about 47 % of them
located in industry, 15 % in government bodies, and 38 % in other
research institutes (www.coastdat.de/; Weisse et al., 2008, 2015).
Data management methods developed in COSYNA are a relevant part of a larger
networked coherent data portal (MaNIDA, www.manida.org/)
From these examples taken from oceanographic research, the following
criteria for success and (societal) impact of products or services can be
derived. (1) Awareness of the necessity for system understanding is being
increased. (2) Observational approaches, (3) technological developments, (4) modelling components,
or (5) data products have been taken over by national
authorities, business enterprises, or other research institutions.
Experiences from this study can contribute to identifying a structured process
for integrating transdisciplinary approaches into coastal oceanographic research
and for further developing evaluation criteria for
the multi-attributive assessments needed in such “non-linear” science
endeavours.